James Heavey Marketing Strategy Assignment 1 Essay Example

James Heavey Marketing Strategy Assignment 1Â   Essay As the market environment changes, managers have to adapt their strategies and organisation. Unless these changes are made, the business will no longer fit the needs of the moment it will be made obsolete by changes in customer wants, new technologies and new competitors that have adapted more effectively (Doyle, 2002, pp. 405-406) Introduction: The marketing environment is a complex constellation of demands and constraints that a firm faces as it attempts to compete and grow. These can be both external and internal. The firm has the power to directly affect some but, by no means, all of the areas in the environment. Those areas beyond the firms control are constantly changing in various ways, it is the responsibility of the firm to take notice of and bring on board any successful changes or advances made in the industry. In the same way they need to identify problems affecting the industry as a whole and react accordingly to minimise negative effect. We will write a custom essay sample on James Heavey Marketing Strategy Assignment 1Â   specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on James Heavey Marketing Strategy Assignment 1Â   specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on James Heavey Marketing Strategy Assignment 1Â   specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Consumer satisfaction is the ultimate goal of the marketing environment. Method: The marketing environment surrounds the consumer and the marketing mix. Consumers and businesses are affected by the forces of the marketing environment. Businesses must determine a marketing strategy, implemented through the aspects of the marketing mix, which aims to satisfy themselves and customers. According to Dibb, the marketing environment is the external forces that directly or indirectly influence an organisations acquisition of inputs and generation of outputs, comprising six categories of forces: Political/legal, Economic, Societal/green (environmental) and Technological. This is also known as the PEST Analysis. Inputs that are affected include personnel, financial resources, raw materials and information etc. The outputs identified by Dibb are information (e.g. advertisements), packages, goods, services and ideas. There are three key sections to the marketing environment, these are the micro environment, the macro environment and the internal environment. The micro marketing environment contains external forces that influence a firm directly. Micro forces include suppliers, competitors, marketing intermediaries, situation and company specific, buyers, the business internal environment and the companys publics. The main micro forces are: The business internal environment: The internal environment consists of top management, finance, research and development, purchasing, sales and marketing, manufacturing and logistics. All these departments must be taken into account when designing market strategies and marketing mix programmes. Marketers must be aware of organisational factors, monitor them and modify their actions accordingly to ensure internal commencement of their marketing ideas. Suppliers: Businesses should recognise the importance of suppliers as without them there would be no end product to sell to consumer. Marketers need to be aware of aspects of supply which might, directly or indirectly, affect the ability of the firm to deliver a quality product to the consumer. Aspects such as; supplier innovations, existing deals with competitors, supply shortages, delays, strikes, recruitment difficulties, legal actions, warranty disputes, supply costs and price trends, new entrants into supply chain, or any other aspect that may affect the natural transfer of goods from supplier to manufacturer. Marketing Intermediaries: These are made up of resellers retailers, wholesalers, agents, brokers dealers and physical distributors for logistical needs, providers of marketing services, and financial facilitators of credit lines and export guarantees. Without these intermediaries, a business is unlikely to be able to deliver its products as expected by consumers. Buyers: People tend to be more willing to buy when they have buying power. Buying power can be influenced by the products absolute price, its price relative to alternative products, brand image and quality, reliability. Other reasons why consumers willingness to spend may be affected are personal expectations about future employment, income levels, prices, family size and general economic conditions. If the responses to these factors are positive then buying will increase as people will obtain more disposable income. Alternatively, if the responses are negative then buying power will decrease. The macro environment consists of all the external factors that can influence a firm, but are beyond their direct control. The macro environment is the PEST analysis. Political/legal: Government policy can have a major impact on the operation of a business. For example, laws on competitive practices will influence the number of firms operating in an industry and therefore strength of the competition. Health and safety legislation will affect work practices and production costs. Marketing tactics will be limited by consumer legislation. The political environment is of particular relevance in countries where governments are unstable and therefore investment risks are high. Economic: Economic factors will influence the future potential profit of a business. The level of consumer demand is a key variable affecting the quantity of sales and the price at which output can be sold. Interest rates will determine the cost of finance to the company. Final profits will be taxed by the government. The economic cycle of recession and recovery is a big influence on the opportunities and threats to the firm. Societal/green: Consumers reflect changes in lifestyles over time. This means businesses must observe shifts in the characteristics and habits of the population. Especially where these influence segments of the existing market, e.g., as the UK population ages, new opportunities open up such as holidays aimed specifically at older people. Demographic variations may also represent a threat to companies, e.g., a fall in the birth rate would negatively affect the competitive position of Mothercare. Consumers and governments are becoming increasingly aware of the impact of business upon the environment. Organisations must now monitor their actions and consider their environmental implications. An issue of this kind can influence the corporate image of an organisation The resulting publicity can be devastating and could damage the effectiveness of the firms promotional activities. Technological: An external audit must monitor developments in technology. These can affect the production methods employed by the organisation, or the products/services offered for sale. A new manufacturing technique might make existing production too expensive for the business to remain profitable. A product may become obsolete because new technology has developed a more effective substitute. However, changes in technology also offer opportunities, such as the potential to break into new markets by producing a new, radically different, product offering. These factors are continuously changing so the firm must be sufficiently flexible to adapt to new conditions. The final environment is the internal environment. This is all the factors that are internal to the firm. The internal environment is of equal importance to the external when a firm is required to cope with change. The internal environment is also known as the marketing mix. The marketing mix is marketing tool. It is a checklist. The marketing mix focuses its attention on the various elements of marketing needed to carry out the marketing strategy and meet the needs of the customers. There are four parts to the marketing mix product, price, promotion and place. Product: Businesses must make sure their product is meeting the needs of their customers. This means paying close attention to a number of product features; how consumers will use the product, the appearance of the product, and financial factors (unless a product is deemed to be value for money it is unlikely to be purchased). Price: The pricing policy that a business chooses is often a reflection of the market at which it is aiming. Prices will not always be set at the level which will maximise sales or short run profits. There are three pricing strategies for the existing product, these are: Price leader the business will set the market price. Price taker the business will match the market price. Predator the business will undercut the market price. Promotion: There are a variety of promotional methods a firm can use including above the line promotions, such as TV advertising, and below the line promotions such as personal selling. A firm will choose a promotion method it feels is likely to be most effective in the market in which it operates. National television advertising will only be reserved for those products with a high sales turnover or wide appeal. Place: This refers to the means by which the product will be distributed to the consumer. The product must get to the right place at the right time. This means making decisions about the way in which the product will be physically distributed i.e., air, sea, rail or road. It also means taking into account how the product is sold. This could be by mail direct from the manufacturer or through retail outlets such as supermarkets. All these environmental factors in the marketing environment must be assessed and acted upon. Marketers can respond to environmental factors in two ways, either accept them as uncontrollable or confront and mould them as best they can to work with the product. If environmental forces are viewed as uncontrollable, the organisation remains passive and reactive towards the environment. The marketer will adjust marketing strategies to suit the environmental changes rather than vice versa. Alternatively, marketers who believe environmental forces can be shaped adopt a proactive approach. Once they identify what blocks a marketing opportunity, marketers can assess the power of the various parties involved and develop strategies to try to overcome these environmental forces. Results: The Marketing Environment Model: (from Marketing Concepts and Strategies Dibb, Simkin, Pride Ferrel, 2001) . In the Marketing Environment Model the nearer the environmental force is to the centre of the circle, the more directly it affects the consumer and their feelings towards the product British Airways and the Airline Industry: The airline industry has been rife with change ever since the New York terrorist attacks of September 11th 2001. The whole marketing environment has been affected so it seems a suitable and effective choice. Although British Airways is not an American airline it has still been greatly affected. The vast reduction of people travelling trans-Atlantic has meant a huge drop in revenue and, in turn, profits. Along with this factor, British Airways (or BA) has suffered the same fate of all airlines as public confidence in the safety of planes has dwindled leaving almost empty planes and cancelled flights. BA first had to review safety policies before tackling any other problems and it was vital they stayed in touch with the advances of their competitors as any bad press in the wake of such a terrible disaster could last long in the memory of the public. PEST Analysis for British Airways: Political/legal: Since 9/11, as it has since become known, the government brought in stricter policies for security at airports and new requirements on board aircraft, e.g. inaccessible cockpits. The amount of security personnel has been increased and luggage is now inspected more frequently and effectively. Passengers are also now checked twice for any hidden items. The government also introduced a partnership with industry to help restore passenger confidence in flying. Economical: The Stock Market entered a recession on 9/11 and trading had to be suspended for fear of total collapse. While recent economic indicators give evidence that we are emerging from the recession, the stock market is still declining. Concerns over questionable corporate ethics and accounting scandals have handcuffed the market. While the productivity and consumption numbers continue to improve slowly, stock prices continue to drop. While investors continue to wait for the proverbial next shoe to drop on the stock market, the economy remains at a standstill. In the months ahead, many believe we will see a slow recovery. While recent GDP numbers were favourable, there is an expectation for slower growth going forward. However, 9/11 is not believed to be the primary cause of the more recent stock market decline. The primary drivers in the market today are accounting scandals, questions over corporate ethics, and the war on terrorism in both Afghanistan and possibly now Iraq. Weak unemployment numbers are also making investors apprehensive and to a certain extent, these nerves can be tied to 9/11. BA has shown a steady increase in turnover since 9/11 and there are no reasons to believe this upsurge will not continue. It is obviously affected by the economy though and a few years of growth would be greatly appreciated by all those in the airline industry. Societal/green: In terms of society BA needs top reflect changes in its consumer lifestyles. Current needs when it comes to flying are primarily centred around safety. To be competitive in the current climate BA need to not only spend billions on improving safety aspects and regulations, but also spend a fortune on advertising to let the public know what they are doing and that BA are among the market leaders when it comes to aircraft safety. Winning the publics confidence is probably more effective now in gaining customers than at any other time in history, so this area needs particular attention to detail. Environmental issues are still of great importance even in the present climate. Issues such as air pollution studies, fuel studies, health studies and noise pollution studies are all high on the agenda of competitors so it is vital BA are seen to be equally concerned about preserving the future of our planet. These issues can require a substantial budget, but money recouped through new consumers, and loyalty from existing consumers, should make the initial outlay soon look like a profitable investment. Technological: It is important for the image of a market leader such as BA to keep up to date with the latest technology. They are expected to have the fastest, most efficient, planes, the comfiest seats and the best service if they are to sustain their present market share and relatively expensive prices. The extra money made on the price is expected to go towards the extensive cost of maintaining such standards. However, in the wake of 9/11, extra emphasis has been placed on obtaining technology to improve passenger safety. Bigger budgets have been allocated to the safety aspect as airlines aim to restore passenger confidence in their airline since the New York terrorist attacks. Recovery in the Travel and Tourism Industry The behaviour of the TBR (Travel Business Roundtable) over the September period provides considerable insight into the sensitivity of the travel and tourism industry to external shocks. When thinking about the industrys recovery, it is also helpful to examine the past. Following the 1990-91 national recession, it took approximately one additional year for the travel and tourism industry to recover. This may be explained in part by the fact that the rebound in consumer confidence followed a most uneven pattern, involving sharp up-down swings lasting until the end of 1993. Similarly today, weak consumer confidence coupled with the uncertainty of safety as well as economic uncertainty, indicates that the recovery for the industry may take even longer than expected. To that end, TBR continues to support an economic stimulus package that addresses the needs of the travel and tourism industry and advocates action that will encourage people to travel now. Conclusion As things currently stand in the industry, no airline has taken a significant lead in attracting consumers back. This may be to do with the fact many are still sceptical about flying. Every airline must be at its most responsive to new ideas and improvements, at least until the industry as a whole has drifted out from underneath the giant public magnifying glass that has hovered for the last fourteen months. The market environment shows us what forces affect a business. It identifies these forces as either micro environment, macro environment ( both are external factors), or the internal environment (the marketing mix). It also illustrates which forces affect the consumer more directly than others. The market environment is always changing and it is vital any organisation is able to keep up with these changes. Marketers need to identify which environmental factors can be moulded to suit marketing strategies but also which strategies need to be altered to fit in with those factors that can not be. Failure to keep up with these changes and show unresponsive behaviour to the market can often lead to a drop in sales and loss of market share. In theory a responsive business is a successful business.

switch securtiy Essays

switch securtiy Essays switch securtiy Essay switch securtiy Essay Security issues in IPv6 Name: Institution: Lecturer: Course: Date: Security Issues on IPv6 IPv6 means Internet protocol version six. Internet protocol is responsible for directing internet traffic. It was created to supplement IPv4. Initially, APARNET was being used, but engineers realized it was too limited. Therefore, the IP versions were introduced to enhance streaming data on the internet. However, internet protocol has been experiencing challenges that have become an obstacle to the growth of the internet. The designers of the IP packet intended to use little space but maximize on the number of addresses. The most appropriate one was considered a size of thirty-two bits. More than half of those addresses cannot be used. The rate at which people are getting addresses is rising everyday. It is likely that in a few years time, there will be no available addresses for use (Gonecalves Niles, 1998). Some of the security threats are being caused by problems when coding and weaknesses in implementing the protocols. Some people in this industry do not have adequate knowledge of this version. These users are therefore, vulnerable to security problems of this version. For example, a person may use IPv6, yet he is not aware that his firewall is not compatible to IPv6. Perhaps it cannot process traffic from this version (Radhamani Radha, 2007). Designers and engineers are making emphasis that before anyone starts using IPv6 on their computers, they should ensure the machines are compatible. This includes both software and hardware. By doing this, security measures will be upheld. A user will also be protecting his or her computer from problems caused by incompatibility (Guttierez Piattini, 2010). People who do not intend to use IPv6 should protect their networks from receiving rogue traffic from this version. This can be done by blocking using firewall. However, this should not be done for a long time because most internet traffic is from this version. They do not want to prevent their client or other stakeholders from access. Most of these people could be using IPv6. Network managers need to be keen with the IPv6 tunnels. They are Teredo, 6to4 and Intra-Site Automatic Tunnel Addressing Protocol (ISATAP). These tunnels allow IPv6 packets to be engulfed in IPv6 packets (Amoss Minoli, 2008). These packets can easily be transferred through firewalls enabled by IPv4 or other network translation modes. If this happens, a network manager will consider a tunneled IPv6 packet to be IPv4 traffic. As a result, they should be more careful and scrutinize what is in the tunnels. This can be done by using firewalls and other preventive systems (Radhamani Radha, 2007). The IPv6 network can allow a trespasser. An attacker can access a network in any part he or she wants. It is also possible for them to breach privacy of a device that is not on site. An organization may have other remote networks. An attacker can still manage to intrude in such networks. This is very risky because an organization’s information and data may be compromised. All necessary measures should be taken to ensure that this version is being used under secure circumstances. It is unfortunate that the majority of filter devices were not designed to be used with IPv6. There are worries that an intruder may hide traffic. This is possible when Route Header 0 is used. When IPv6 packets are transferred back and forth via the same link, there is a possibility of overworking the bandwidth. This will result to denial of further service. In addition to this, more illegal intrusion can be done by trespassers (Joshi, 2008). If there are people who are still using Anycast, it is no longer secure. It functions by informing many places about the same IP in the internet. This happens so that every box will just move to the closest IP. The IPv6’s route header 0 feature can distinguish all services by Anycast. This is risky because the benefits of Anycast are not going to be utilized. A conclusion was made that Route header 0 is not useful. It only brings breach of security and other problems. Therefore, it can be prevented by locking it out of your network. The introduction of IPv6 is a threat to IPv4. Those intending to test IPv6 should be aware that they would make IPv4 vulnerable. A network manager may end up destroying IPv4 and realize IPv6 is not useful. It could also be a problem to other systems like security devices and the operating system. It would be a great loss especially if IPv4 was being used for income generation (Minoli, 2006). Worms and viruses are suitable agents of passing on codes maliciously. This can be done through vulnerable hosts who are used to attack systems, which are remote. IPv6 has an advantage of mobility over IPv4. Though it is an advantage, it is associated with security risks. During mobility, two addresses are used, and the second one is temporary. Due to the features of these networks, they could lead to illegal intrusion (Joshi, 2008). When mobility is taking place, the network handlers should be very careful and ensure strict security measures. IPv6 is likely to get fragmentation attacks. They interfere with the operations of the operating system. For example, a ping of death attack happens when the system attacked is filled with fragmented internet control messaging protocol ping packets. In every fragment, the size of the ping packets becomes bigger than the normal size. This results to the system crushing because the sizes are beyond the limit of this version (Amoss Minoli, 2008). IPv6 has issues with its security. However, it is better than IPv4. The latter experiences more security threats. This was one reason why IPv6 was deployed. To subdue the problems associated with this version, the network managers should first get all the information available about this version (Minoli, 2006). Most people suffer when using it because they are not fully familiar with it. For example, before using it in a network, it is fundamental to first confirm whether testing it is possible. Consider all the factors influencing which version to buy and decide the most appropriate. Every security threat should be identified and dealt. Most of them are not complex hence; it is possible to solve (Loshin, 2003). References Amoss, J., Minoli, D. (2008). Handbook of IPv4 to IPv6 transition: Methodologies for institutional and corporate networks. Boca Raton: Auerbach Publications. Gonc?alves, M., Niles, K. (1998). IPv6 networks. New York: McGraw-Hill. Gutierrez, C., Fernandez-Medina, E., Piattini, M. (2010). Web services security development and architecture: Theoretical and practical issues. Hershey, PA: Information Science. Joshi, J. B. D. (2008). Network security: Know it all. Burlington, MA, USA: Morgan Kaufmann. Loshin, P. (2003). IPv6: Theory, Protocol, and Practice, 2nd Edition. Burlington: Elsevier. Minoli, D. (2006). Voice over IPv6: Architectures for next generation VoIP networks. Burlington, MA: Newnes. Radhamani, G., Radha, K. R. G. S. V. (2007). Web services security and e-business. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Pub.

Strategic Action Plan for Food Waste Management Essay

Strategic Action Plan for Food Waste Management - Essay Example ch requires urgent action is how to reduce the dumping of food waste in the landfills so as to minimize the economic, social and environmental impacts. Langham Hotel is one of Hong Kongs most reputed and largest chain of hotels. Langham was recently selected as the first site to evaluate the feasibility of the new food waste composting program of the Hong Kong Governments’ Environmental Protection Department because of its active implementation of â€Å"green† initiatives. As a pioneer in sustainable food waste management practice in Hong Kong, Langham has the objective to be the leading eco-hotel in the hospitality industry. The effective resolution of the problem through development and implementation of novel strategies to reduce and avoid food waste, is likely to help not only the hotel but also support the national efforts to reduce food waste, reduce the carbon footprint and protect the environment. It will also encourage the others to follow in its footsteps and contribute to a greater social and environmental cause in the long run in the process. CSR TV is the project consultant of Langham’s Sustainability Task Force reviewing their CONNECT Programme. How to continuously improve the existing food waste prevention and recycling program and extend support to the staff and local communities with regard to management of food waste has been in the mind of the CEO for some time. In the analysis paper, recommendations for the future review of sustainability challenges are: 1) avoid food waste at source 2) reuse and recycle food waste through innovation 3) minimizing food waste disposal to landfills. The CEO has asked CSRTV to source for global guidance on preventing and reducing food waste more effectively so as to create a sustainability strategy that would lead the company to do things in different and better way. CSR TV represents the Strategic Task Force in presenting this paper for CEO endorsement. This paper will focus on implementing a food waste

Cultural Activity Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Cultural Activity Report - Essay Example In fulfillment of the requirements of this course, on 15th/03/2014, I took my time and attended a live concert at the City Auditorium. This was a spectacular event organized by the National Jazz Promoters which features the renowned Jazz Band of America. As a student, I had to attend this show in order to have a first-hand encounter with this high school-students-dominated band. It was indeed a great experience because it exposed me to lots of entertainment that I had never enjoyed before. With the National Jazz Promoters at the helm of the concert, everything went as planned. I was very excited and anxious to come across great figures like David Alex Lacy, Joel Gardella, Aaron Mutchler, Josh Achiron and Max who have made a name in the music industry. Even before the beginning of the event, my attention was captured by the theatre. For sure, the event was organized in a very spacious theatre equipped with modern facilities including chairs, stage, auditorium and laser lights. Meaning, all the fans that had thronged the venue would be easily accommodated without any problem. Besides, there were still enough spaces in which everyone would get to dance and enjoy the sweet melodious songs played by these artists. I was impressed by the manner in which these artists entertained us. Each of them seemed to have been adequately prepared for their respective roles which they played excellently. Meaning, the conductor, vocalists, singers, dancers and the instrumentalists were quite articulate in their performance. Everything was properly coordinated to help in producing sweet sounding rhythms that could be enjoyed by everyone. As a matter of fact, I was particularly delighted by the performances of Phillip Ahn who played the saxophone; Nathaniel McKay who played a trumpet; guitarist Josh Achiron and the pianist Max Holm. Their participating in the concert was so entertaining. A part from these instrumentalists, the singers also displayed a

Racial Prejudices Essay Example for Free

Racial Prejudices Essay What is prejudice? set of learned beliefs and values that lead a person to be biased against other members of other groups. -prejudices are convenient(bequem,brauchbar,passend) and inaccurate. - people are not seen as individuals, biased people label other people to special groups -prejudice is mostly based on inaccurate information about people Prejudice originates from three common parts(these parts make up a prejudiced belief): 1. Generalisations -a very broad , simple statement about a group of people -here is perhaps an appropriate point to provide an example:All catholics or when the word they figures strongly -key words for generalisations are all and they generalisations are also very inaccurate , because we are not justified in saying that all members of these group or race share the same characteristic features. G. are unfair descriptions of people and they are mostly based on very incomplete information. Having met one member from a different group with an extraordinary behaviour ,we often assume that all mebers of this group show this same extraordinary behaviour. 2. Stereotyping. -exaggerated,often negative image of a particular group of people -a stereotyp often contains a grain of truth , but this grain of truth is combined with an exaggerated and undue image of this group. Ethnocentricity -there are two types of prejudices: 1. prejudice against all outsidersyour group is the only right and proper,all other groups are excludud,other groups are portrayed as being strange and inferior. 2. prejudice against specific groups- you are able to cope with some other groups,but you disapprove a special group of their religionthats why you have a prejudice against this particular group. But this kind of prejudice does not express that your religion is the best and that all other religions are worser than your own one. You are only biased against this particular religion. -prejudice against all other groups is called ethnocentricity Prejudice and discrimination Discrimination: -Speaking of Discrimination against a special group we mean the combination of prejudice with actions In this sense the word discriminating means that we are treating a group in a negative way. -the effect of people are discriminated against:loss in terms of money ,housing,education -the forms of Discrimination: 1. verbal abuse(anti-locution)through specific termsundermines their confidence-feeling of I am not desired in this society 2. Discrimination in jobsRefusal of jobs to a groupdisadvantage in terms of jobs,income,personal decline. 3. Attack on propertydestruction of carsExpulsion because there is a lack of physical security 4. Physical attack-Assaults on group members;stabs;deathsfurther lack of security;anger;frustration;formation of self-defence groups 5. Genocidemass murder of allextermination of whole families and cultural groups. Racial prejudice or racism -always aimed at special groups -racism bases on the belief that one group(identified by their physical appearance,the skin colour) is naturally superior to other groups-the superior group therefore holds the view that other groups get inferior opportunities and treatment,the belief in superiority is only the medium or justification for repressing other groups. -racism:hostility of any group towards other groups on the basis of perceived physical features. Why do we have prejudices? several reasons: 1. the warped personality. -children brought up in a tense and repressive family-inclination towards own authoritarian attitudes -individuals resentment about his or her childhood finds an outlet in hostility towards minorities -As to Adorno the prejudice springs from harsh childhoods and defective personalities 2. Scapegoating -frustration-aggression theory combined with the use of the idea of scapegoat= The own failure of people(such as financial security,good job,status symbol) evokes frustration. The people are not acquainted with the real cause of their failure. Their frustration develops into aggression. Frequently,as a result the people search for weaker groups to lay the blame on them. This groups are guilty of an individuals failure and frustration these people taking blame for an failure of other people are described or represented by scapegoats. Conformity -friends ,family your whole environment will induce you to share their views. They prevail upon you to be prejudiced against a special group. -The group pressure will cause you to agree with the group you are member of.

John Locke and Human Nature :: Second Treatise on Civil Government

In The Second Treatise of Government, Locke defines political power, discusses the inalienable birth-rights of man, and the need for both in the formation of a legitimate government. John Locke’s The Second Treatise of Government defines a legitimate government in relation to the protection of inalienable rights. He views a valid government as one which upholds his three main natural laws of life, liberty and property. In defining political power, Locke insists that it is proper to make laws â€Å"for the regulating and preserving of property,† and adds, that if necessary, â€Å"the execution of such laws, and in the defense of the common-wealth [sic] from foreign injury.† This is needed â€Å"for the public good.† (Locke, Sec. III) Defined, Locke’s political power is the ability to uphold a constitution. Locke’s reasoning for the creation of a government arises in the need to protect life, liberty and justice. Locke concludes that â€Å"the reason why men enter into society, is the preservation of their property; and the end why they choose and authorize a legislative,† but adds that the citizens â€Å"have a right to resume their original liberty †¦ by the establishment of a new legislative† (Locke, Sec. CCXXI) when those rights are threatened. The protection of life, liberty and justice then becomes the reason for a â€Å"new legislative.† The value Locke places on property is only furthered in his discussion of the will of the populace. Locke discusses in his chapter Of the Beginning of Political Societies the effect which the majority has on the betterment of the community: â€Å"For when any number of Men have, by the consent of every individual, made a Community, the have thereby made that Community one Body, with a Power to Act as one Body, which is only by the will and determination of the majority† (Locke, Sec.

Sectarianism in Pakistan

Sectarianism in Pakistan INTRODUCTION The decade of the 1990s witnessed a frightening upsurge in the Shia-Sunni sectarian violence in Pakistan, both in terms of scope and intensity. Recently, sectarian strife has engulfed even those areas, which were previously unaffected, largely because of the emergence of organized terrorist groups along sectarian lines. Besides target killings, these groups hit even ordinary members of each other’s sects. The problem, therefore, is no more of an occasional nature, or limited to isolated localities.Rather, it has now become a national concern with serious implications for the state and society. The paper argues that though the Shia-Sunni conflict is not new to Pakistan or even to the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent, the ongoing phase is distinct in several ways:  · Firstly, the level and intensity of violence is high because of easy access to weapons and training facilities in Afghanistan.  · Secondly, certain Islamic states such as Iran and Saudi Arabia sponsor the activities of sectarian groups. This adds a regional dimension to the domestic sectarian conflict. Thirdly, the social base of the sectarian conflict has significantly expanded because of factors including: a) Use of print media, school textbooks, religious literature, posters and banners; b) Accessibility to means of electronic communication; c) Better transport services which increase mobility of sectarian activists. To argue thus this paper is divided into following three sections: 1) Sectarian Violence and its origins; 2) Causes of Sectarian Violence in Pakistan; and 3) Failure of State. SECTARIAN VIOLENCE AND ITS ORIGINS This section discusses the history of sectarian violence.Sectarian violence and religious extremism is an unpredictable menace. History is replete with incidents of such sorts in various countries. The bigots and the evil minded selfish natured people are behind this abhorrent act relating to the security concerns of many nations. Unfo rtunate is the fact that usually the third world Muslim countries have been and are being constantly threatened by these evil acts. Sectarian Violence in Muslim History: Since the very beginning, the Shia-Sunni sectarian conflict has been one of the major characteristics of Muslim history.Different factions in the respective Muslim societies have also closely interlinked it to the struggle for the acquisition of political power. Syed Amir Ali remarks: â€Å"Alas! That the religion of humanity and universal brotherhood should not have escaped the internecine strife and discord; that the faith which was to bring peace and rest to the distracted world should itself be torn to pieces by angry passions and the lust of power. â€Å"1 At the centre of sectarian strife has been the Shia-Sunni conflict.Immediately after the passing away of the Prophet of Islam, a division emerged on the question of succession. â€Å"A small group believed that such a function must remain in the family of the Prophet and backed ‘Ali’, whom they believed to have been designated for this role by appointment and testament. They became known as his ‘partisans’ (shia) while the majority agreed on Abu Bakr on the assumption that the Prophet left no instruction on this matter; they gained the name ‘The People of Prophetic Tradition and consensus of opinion’ (ahl al-sunnah wa’l-jama‘ah). â€Å"Besides the political dimension, there also existed a difference of opinion about the merits and functions of the successor to the Prophet. â€Å"Sunni Islam considered the Khalifah to be a guardian of the Sharia‘h in the community, while Shi‘ism saw in the ‘successor’ a spiritual function connected with the esoteric interpretation of the revelation and the inheritance to the Prophet’s esoteric teachings. † In contrast to the Sunnis, the institution of Imamate is fundamental to the Shia Islam. â€Å"The Imam, 1 Syed Amir Ali, The Spirit of Islam (Karachi: Pakistan Publishing House, 1976), p100. esides being a descendant of the Prophet, must possess certain qualities—he must be Ma‘sum or sinless, bear the purest and most unsullied character, and must be distinguished above all other men for truth and purity. † Whereas, the Sunnis believe that the â€Å"Imamate is not restricted to the family of Mohammad. The Imam need not be just, virtuous, or irreproachable (Ma ‘sum) in his life, nor need he be the most excellent or eminent being of his time; so long as he is free, adult, sane, and possessed of the capacity to attend to the ordinary affairs of State, he is qualified for election. 2 Later, both the Shia and Sunni schools further split into several sub-sects on different issues related to succession, interpretation of scriptures and political theory of Islam. Sectarian conflict in the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent: Fearing persecution by Ummayeds and later Abbasides, some of the Shias had moved to the distant parts of the Muslim Empire. Sizeable Shia communities had been established in Punjab and Sindh after their conquest by Muhammad bin Qasim.Under the early Abbasides, the governor of Jhang, Umar bin Hafas, was a clandestine supporter of Fatimid’s movement and it was under him that the Batinya influence spread into the areas between Shorkot and Sindh. Later, one of the Shia branch, the Karamata, was able to set up its independent dynasty in Multan. The Karamata had established contacts with the Fatimides in Egypt and continued to rule Multan and 2 Syed Amir Ali, The Spirit of Islam (Karachi: Pakistan Publishing House, 1976), p103. urrounding areas, which included parts of Jhang, until Mahmud Ghaznavi defeated and destroyed their â€Å"heretical† dynasty. With this, the Karamata movement was wiped out in the Indo-Pakistan context, as it could not survive the loss of political power. However, it left a deep religious imprint on the local population. This is one of the reasons why even today southern Punjab inhabits a sizeable Shia population. In southern India, the Bahmani and Adil Shahi dynasties which ruled for quite some time and acted as a bulwark against Marhattas, professed Shia doctrines.These dynasties were brought under the control of Mughals under Aurangzeb (d. 1707), which opened the way for the rise of Marhattas. Aurangzeb was allegedly hostile to the Shia dynasties, largely because he considered them heretical. As the Shia dynasties were receiving support from the Safavides of Iran, who were hostile to the Mughals, he had made an offer of alliance to Bukhara. The weakening and disintegration of the Mughal Empire, after the death of Aurangzeb Alamgir, paved the way for a qualitatively different era in the Muslim history of the Sub-continent.The new era witnessed, on one hand, the onslaught of the British with both colonial and western agenda and, on the other, the rise of Marhattas and Sikhs. Mean while, the early successors of Aurangzeb had come under the influence of their Shia courtiers, the Sayyids of Barha. It was in response to these developments that Shah Waliullah (1703-1762) started his reform movement to reassert Islam. Another was the Wahabi movement of Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd al Wahhab (1703-1787), which started in Saudi Arabia, but had a great impact on the religious scene of India.Both these movements played a major role in the making of today’s religio-political scene of India and Pakistan. The Wahabi movement emphasised essentials, preached reverting back to the original sources of Quran and Sunnah, and rejected many of the innovations and cultural adaptations made over centuries in the Indian context. It was vehemently opposed to the Sufi tradition and other divergent schools of thought such as Shia‘ism. Essentially, this movement was exclusionist, and far less tolerant and accommodative of divergence, heterogeneity and variations in religious ma tters.It lambasted the corruption and laxity of the Muslims’ attitudes and rejected the accommodations and cultural richness of the medieval empire. Its sole emphasis was on the classical law, which, in the view of its champions, was the sum and substance of the faith. It was, despite the fact that many leaders of the jihad movement were not blind followers of Muhammad Ibn, ‘Abd al Wahhab to warrant the term â€Å"Wahabi† for them. Given their extremist credentials, however, the term was widely accepted and is still used in Pakistan3 for the people with similar puritan views.They are also called Ahl-i-Hadith. Shah Wali Ullah, however, started the most significant reform movement, in the 18th century. Like Wahabis, Shah Waliullah strongly condemned the corrupted Sufi customs and practices, but he was a Hanafi and his version of purified Islam was not completely rejectionist. He himself was a Sufi. He tried to postulate an interpretation of Islam that would coalesc e into a purified Sufism with a purified Sunnah. The Shah Wali Ullah’s movement later crystallized into the Deoband movement, founded by 3Qeyamuddin Ahmed, The Wahabi Movement in India (New Delhi: Manohar, 1994), p203. Maulana Qasim Nanotawi, in the then United Provinces of British India in 1867. In 1857, Maulana Nanotawi had actively taken part in the rebellion against the British. Through the Deoband movement, however, he and his colleagues sought to achieve their goals through peaceful resistance. The goal, under the circumstances, was nothing but cultural and religious freedom and political independence. In the following years, the Deoband movement adopted the attitude of peaceful resistance and non-co-operation towards the British.They refused to learn the English language and modern knowledge, and emphasised Arabic and teachings of Islamic classics. In religious terms, the Deoband movement continued to largely profess Shah Waliullah’s teachings with puritan empha sis. Originally, the Deoband School had a policy of non-involvement into sectarian controversies, but later, especially under Maulana Rashid Ahmad Gangohi, the Hanafis became divided into rival groups. Among others, it was because Maulana Gangohi had condemned â€Å"the annual gatherings at the tombs of saints as well as the prevalent rites of fatihah and milad†.These differences were a manifestation of dissatisfaction of the Deoband School with the things as they existed and its determination to improve them. The puritan emphasis of Wahabis and Deobandis generated tensions among Muslims. The followers of Sufi Islam did not accept the puritan emphasis which, in their view, amounted to renunciation of mystic conception of Islam. It was, however, Maulana Ahmad Raza Khan (1856-1921) who founded the Brelvi School4 by setting up a 4 Usha Sanyal, Devotional Islam and Politics in British India: Ahmad Riza Khan Barelwi and His Movement, 1870-1920 (Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1996 ), p44. adrasa at Breli in the United Provinces. Unlike the puritans, the Brelvi school expressed and sustained â€Å"the social and religious customs of a decadent people: the civilization, or lack of it, into which India fell after the feudal Mughal culture had succumbed and before a new culture arose under the imperial British penetration. † Meanwhile, Lucknow had become the centre of Shia activism. The confrontation between these schools later spread to the whole of the Indo-Pakistan Sub-continent. In particular, it resulted in increased incidents of Shia-Sunni violence.Later, however, the emergence of Amada movement, whose founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, claimed to be the prophet, prompted a unified reaction from all of the above mentioned schools. The Ahmadis, who are also called as Qadianis and Mirzais, were declared non-Muslims by all of the above groups. This declaration was formulated on the basis that they do not believe in the finality of the prophet hood of Muhammad . This controversy overshadowed the differences among the rest of the sectarian groups for decades until they were formally declared non-Muslims through a Constitutional Amendment in Pakistan in 1974.The nature of Shia-Sunni violence under the British was radically different than it had been under the earlier Muslim empires or caliphates. Previously, it was always a conflict either between the established Sunni authorities and anti-status quo Shia denominations or between the Sunni and Shia dynasties or caliphates. Under the alien rule of the British, the conflict declined to the communities’ level, involving the general public and theologians alike in sectarian violence.The role of the government was limited to that of arbiter, enforcer of law or manipulator, if so required, in the larger colonial interests. However, the state was secular and largely unrepresentative and, therefore, the use of sectarian idiom was limited to the purpose of selfidentification. The problem of s ectarian conflict in the post-independence years can be analyzed both in terms of the continuation of old historical pattern with certain new characteristics and, as a direct consequence of crises of identity and governance in Pakistan.It may be noted that the political discourse at macro level has revolved around the issues of Islamization vs. modernization, centralization vs. provincial autonomy, and democracy vs. authoritarianism in Pakistan since independence. The persistent ambivalence towards these issues has led the Pakistani State into a crisis of identity, causing frustration among almost all the sections of society including modernists, Islamists and various ethnic communities.The frustration has become further intensified in view of the failure of successive governments on the performance front, especially in terms of giving due representation to the marginalized sections of society in the top state institutions. Sectarian Conflicts in Pakistan: There are numerous sectari an divisions in Pakistan. One source puts the total number of Muslim sects and sub sects at 72. 5 The Sunni population subdivides into four major streams–Deobandis, Barelvis, Ahl-e Hadith and Wahabis–and within these there are 5 Sectarian Division of Muslims† (Bureau Report), The Times, London, 28 Sept. 1998. reportedly dozens of subgroups6. Despite these divisions, the majority of Sunnis in Pakistan follow the Hanafi School of Islamic jurisprudence7 The Sunni population is estimated to be 74 per cent of Pakistan's population. The three Shia streams in Pakistan are the Ismailis, the Ithna Ashariyya and the Bohras. 8 Estimates of the size of the Shia population vary widely, from a low of 5 per cent to a high of 25 percent; most sources put it at 15-20 per cent. During the Pakistan movement, the essentially secular leaders of the Muslim League had used the idiom of ‘Muslim identity’ to mobilize masses and to justify a separate homeland for them. Intere stingly, almost all the major religious parties of that time had opposed the demand of Pakistan either on the grounds that the concept of separate nationhood was not tenable from the perspective of Islam, or that the secular leadership of Muslim League could not be trusted to sincerely fulfill the promise of the creation of an Islamic state.Nonetheless, the Muslim League succeeded in creating Pakistan, despite the opposition of religious parties. As a result, the Islamic identity of the migrant communities, which settled mostly in the urban areas of Punjab and Sindh, was reinforced and they began to act as the major vehicle for the Islamization campaign in Pakistan. It was, in contrast to other ethnic groups such as Sindhis, Baluchis and Pakhtuns who, while de-emphasizing the ideological debate, championed the cause of decentralization and provincial autonomy. 6 7 The Sub-Sects of Muslims† (Report), The Economist, London, 28 Jan 1995. Daniel Pipes, Islam and Islamic Groups (De troit: Gale Research, 1992), p184. 8 Ibid. p185. 9 Muhammad Qasim Zaman, â€Å"Sectarianism in Pakistan: The Radicalization of Shi‘i and Sunni Identities†, Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 32, No. 3, July 1998. Gradually, groups emerged out of the existing religious parties, which started emphasizing the sectarian differences with the professed aim of persuading the state to accept their particular views into legislation and its policies.In the following years, Punjab was to become the major victim of sectarian violence. Today sectarian violence has become widespread, particularly between Shi’a and Sunni militants in areas bordering Afghanistan, while dozens of tribal elders were murdered by militants in Waziristan. CAUSES OF SECTARIAN VIOLENCE IN PAKISTAN This section discusses the main reasons which led to sectarian violence in Pakistan. Pakistan, one of the largest Muslim countries the world, has seen serious Shia-Sunni sectarian violence. Almost 70% of Pakistan's M uslim population is Sunni, and another 30% are Shia.However, but this Shia minority forms the second largest Shia population of any country,10 larger than the Shia majority in Iraq. In the last two decades, as many as 4,000 people are estimated to have died in sectarian fighting in Pakistan, 300 in 2006. 11 Amongst the culprits blamed for the killing are Al Qaeda working â€Å"with local sectarian groups† to kill what they perceive as Shi'a apostates, and â€Å"foreign powers †¦ trying to sow discord. â€Å"12 10 Vali Nasr, The Shia Revival (Newyork:Norton, 2006), p160. â€Å"Shiite-Sunni conflict rises in Pakistan,† by David Montero, February 02, 2007. 11 12 Shiite-Sunni conflict rises in Pakistan,† by David Montero, February 02, 2007. Since 2004, there has been intense violence in the FATA. What started in South Waziristan, slowly spread to North Waziristan in 2005 and then later to Bajaur and Mohamand Agency during 2006 and 2007. For the last two years, this violence has spread to the settled districts of the Khyber Pakhtoonkhawa including Bannu, DI Khan, Peshawar and Swat. Led by the Taliban and its local supporters in the FATA and Khyber Pakhtoonkhawa , this violence is posing a serious threat to the process of governance, challenging the writ of the State.Referred to by media as Talibanization, these developments has been the subject of intense academic, media and policy interest. Many factors contributed to the growth of sectarian violence since the 1980s and 90s. While some were direct causes, others indirectly deepened the sectarian fault lines. Some of them are: Sectarian Politics: The following factors increased the sectarian divide, which was embedded in Pakistani society in the 1980s, especially in Punjab. First, the formation of Shia and Sunni militant organizations which were not representative of their respective communities although there was support from them.The formation of the militant Sunni Sipah-i-Sahaba, Pakis tan (SSP) and the Shia Sipah-i-Mohammad, Pakistan (SMP) was the main factor underlying the escalating conflict between the two communities. Apart from the Sipah-i-Sahaba, other Sunni organizations like Sunni Tehrik were formed in Sindh. Later some SSP activists led by Riaz Basra organized the Lashkar-e-Jhangvi (LJ), named after the founder of the SSP. The LJ was more militant and has been banned. These organizations widened the sectarian divide and both groups started using violence against each other. The strength of these militant sectarian organizations increased in the 1980s nd 90s, and they were only banned by General Musharraf in January 2002. Second, factionalism within the religious parties and militant organizations deepened the sectarian divide. The Jamiat-ul-Islam (JUI) got divided into two factions led by Fazl-ur-Rahman and Sami-ul-Haq and both factions attempted to build their foundations on anti-Shia tenets with each trying to be more virulently anti-Shia. Even the mil itant organizations on both sides (the SSP and the SMP) faced divisions, and these factions, devoid of effective leadership, were involved in arbitrary killings of the other community.Religious parties like the JUI provided indirect support to militant organizations. It is essential to understand that sectarian violence is largely limited to Punjab, especially in the district of Jhang, where the mainstream religious parties never enjoyed popular support. Baluchistan had been free of sectarian violence and so was Sind, except for Karachi. The Jamiat Ulema-i-Pakistan (JUP), which enjoys support at the popular level in Punjab belongs to the Brehlvi faith and does not share the antagonism of the Deobandis and Wahabis towards the Shias.In fact, unlike the latter two, the JUP considers them to be Muslims and a part of the Islamic world. Third, sectarian violence in Punjab was primarily due to Shia-Sunni economic, social and political relations. For example in Jhang, where sectarian violen ce is high, the Shia community forms the upper class, being landlords and enjoying political power; the majority Sunni community forms the lower stratum in the social, economic and political hierarchy. When the Sunni middle class grew, especially in the 1970s as a result of better education and remittances from the Gulf, they demanded their share of ocial and political status, which was resisted by the Shias. Maulana Nawaz Jhangvi, assassinated in 1990 by Shia militants, formed the Sipah-i-Sahaba in Jhang in1985, largely to fight the Shia landlords. Anti-Shia groups: Anti-Shia groups in Pakistan include the Lashkar i Jhangvi and Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan, offshoots of the Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam (JUI). The groups demand the expulsion of all Shias from Pakistan and have killed hundreds of Pakistani Shias between 1996 and 1999. 13 As in Iraq they â€Å"targeted Shia in their holy places and mosques, especially during times of communal prayer. â€Å"14From January to May 1997, Sunni terro r groups assassinated 75 Shia community leaders â€Å"in a systematic attempt to remove Shias from positions of authority. â€Å"15 Lashkar i Jhangvi has declared Shia to be `American agents` and the `near enemy` in global jihad. 16 Islamization policies of Zia: Islamic policies introduced by Zia-ul-Haq were also responsible for the growth of sectarian violence inside Pakistan. An in-depth analysis would reveal that these policies were cosmetic and peripheral, as they did not impinge 13 Ahmed Rashid, Taliban: Islam, oil and the new great game in central Asia (London: Tauris, 2000), p194. 14Vali Nasr, The Shia Revival (Newyork:Norton, 2006), p166. Vali Nasr, The Shia Revival (Newyork:Norton, 2006), p167. Ibid. p168. 15 16 on the bureaucratic military oligarchy or the feudal structure of the society. In fact, these policies were aimed at gaining legitimacy within Pakistan and were not meant to challenge the existing social and economic institutions. However, the Islamization policie s exerted a negative influence on the two communities. The Sunni religious parties led by JUI and JUP became active vis-a-vis the Shias, as they wanted the State to introduce the Sunnization of Pakistan, which the Shias feared.This made the Shias defensive and they started supporting the PPP. In July 1980, 25,000 Shia portested the Islamization laws in the capital Islamabad. Besides, the changes made by Zia led to intense competition amongst the various Sunni groups, especially the Wahabis, Deobandis and Brehlvis, as they wanted the State to enforce their own version of Islam, especially the Islamic laws, though they were united in their opposition to Shias. However, the Islamic reforms introduced by Zia, especially relating to the legal field, alarmed the Shia community.The Tehrik-i-Nifaz-i-Fiqh-iJafriya (TNFJ) was formed in 1979 to enforce the Jafri fiqh; earlier in the same year Zia had declared that the Hanafi fiqh would be enforced. The formation of TNFJ was the political respo nse of the Shia community. In its early years it fought to get concessions such as exempting the Shia community from paying zakat and ushr. Jihad in Afghanistan: Pakistan’s Afghan policy in the 1980s and 90s aggravated sectarian violence inside the country. Afghan resistance against the Soviet Union in the 1980s resulted in the proliferation and easy availability of small arms in Pakistan. 7 The emergence of and subsequent growth of the Taliban in the 1990s and 17 Michael Klare, â€Å"Redefining Security: The New Global Schisms†, Current History, Vol. 95, No. 604, 1996, p161. their support to Sunni organizations such as the Harkat-ul-Mujahideen impinged directly on sectarian violence. The Sipah-i-Sahaba cadres were trained in Afghanistan and most of them fought the Taliban in Afghanistan and the Shias inside Pakistan. Iran-Iraq War: The impact of the emergence of the Khomeini regime in 1979 in Iran and the subsequent Iran-Iraq war in the early 1980s on sectarian violen ce in Pakistan has generally been underestimated.It is no coincidence that the TNFJ, the main Shiite party in Pakistan, was formed in 1979. When the Iran-Iraq war started, the Muslim world got divided into two camps and started funding their faith. As a result, enormous funds flowed, especially from Saudi Arabia and Iran, into Pakistan to support the various Sunni and Shia organizations and the madras as run by them respectively, which were directly responsible for the growth of organized opposition and violence. Iranian Funding: Exacerbating tensions is Iranian funding of Shia extremists in Pakistan, who not only exact revenge against Sunnis, but have also been used to violently uppress Iranian dissidents in the country who are critical of the Iranian regime. Shia formed student associations and a Shia party with the fundings from Iran, Sunni began to form sectarian militias recruited from Deobandi and Ahl-i Hadith madrasahs. Preaching against the Shia in Pakistan was radical cleri c Israr Ahmed. Muhammad Manzour Numani, a senior Indian cleric with close ties to Saudi Arabia published a book entitled â€Å"Iranian Revolution: Imam Khomeini and Shiism†. The book, which became â€Å"the gospel of Deobandi militants† 18 in the 1980s, attacked Khomeini and argued the excesses of the 8 Vali Nasr, The Shia Revival (Newyork:Norton, 2006), p164. Islamic revolution were proof that Shiism was not the doctrine of misguided brothers, but beyond the Islamic pale. Pakistan is the only Sunni majority country where Shias have been elected to top offices and played an important part in the country's history and nation building. The founder of Pakistan Muhammed Ali Jinnah, Muhammad Ali Bogra and the Bhutto family are Shia Muslims, as is Asif Ali Zardari, Abida Hussian, Faisal Saleh Hayat and several other top ranking Pakistani Politicians and Generals such as Yahya Khan,Musa Khan andIskander Mirza. Jihad in Kashmir: Pakistan’s support and involvement in Kas hmir was also responsible for sectarian violence. While the Lashkar-e-Taiba and the Hizbul Mujahideen do not indulge in sectarian violence inside Pakistan, the same cannot be said about other jihadi groups, especially the Harkat-ul-Mujahideen and, its later incarnation, the Jaish-eMohammad. Both these groups were trained in Afghanistan under the Taliban and were close to Lashkar-e-Jhangvi, the most violent Sunni organization. Before the Musharraf regime started its rackdown on sectarian organizations in 2001, these three were involved in collecting funds for jihad in Kashmir. The security agencies could not do much, as they could not differentiate which organization was involved. Tribal Conflict in the khyber Pakhtoonkhawa : Tribal clashes between Pashtun tribes in the Northwest Frontier Province have also taken on a sectarian nature, with the Shia Orakzai tribe often battling with their Sunni neighbors. These clashes are centered around the town of Bannu, and have often turned dead ly.However, the conflict is rooted in centuries' old land disputes, and has only taken on a sectarian nature since the fanatic Taliban regime came into power in nearby Afghanistan in the 1990s. The Madrassas: Various madrassas, especially in Punjab and Karachi, accentuated existing sectarian cleavage. Each Sunni schism (Deobandi, Brehlvi, Wahabi) and Shias ran their own madrassas for providing basic education. The curriculum was decided by the madaris. As a result, when sectarian fault lines got pronounced, a hate campaign was introduced vis-a-vis the other sect.Besides, the madrassas also provided manpower for these sectarian organizations, leading to sectarian engagements on the streets and dividing them further. About one-third of the 2,50019 registered madrassas in Punjab are known to impart military training to their students, and to be directly involved in sectarian attacks. The communities started defending their faith by protecting and supporting the offenders instead of con demning their violence. This support took the form of political, personal and financial patronage, which only accentuated the cycle of violence. 19Iqbal Quadir, â€Å"Madrassa Culture in Pakistan†, HRCP Journal, Vol. 8, No. 3, Nov 1998. FAILURE OF STATE What has been clear since the beginning of this sectarian conflict in Pakistan is the complete failure of the State, from Zia’s period onwards. It was unfortunate that during Zia’s period in the 1980s the Turis of Kurram Agency became the pawns in Pakistan’s larger game in Afghanistan. The State failed to understand Turi fears and insecurity, and has failed to understand them ever since. The emergence of the Taliban and the growth of sectarian politics in the 1990s further aggravated the situation.Given the sensitivities the State forces should have taken extra care in preventing the movement of battle hardened Sunni Taliban with their sectarian streak into sensitive places. Unfortunately, the State was ne ver keen in enforcing its writ in the tribal agencies. The questions of State’s failure should be seen in the context of its wider historical lack of interest in maintaining its writ in the FATA. It allowed its writ to erode in the name of maintaining tribal customs and traditions. It even exploited the same customs and traditions to pursue its larger strategic interests in Afghanistan.The Pakistani state has failed to understand that the situation has been dramatically changing over the last decade. A section within the FATA, especially amongst the younger generation, is highly influenced by the Taliban-al Qaeda brand of Islam, and prefers to adhere to their Islamic principles, rather than the age old secular tribal customs of the Pashtuns, referred to as Pashtunwali. Another section, within the young generation, exposed to modern education and democratic ideals, prefers the xpansion of State’s functions into tribal regions. Though both the above streams of youths are highly anti-American, they don’t agree with how they are being governed. While the Taliban supporters prefer to be governed under Shariah, the more modernminded others want the State expand its governance process. Thus, both sections want to repeal the archaic FCR, but for different reasons. More importantly, in the above two schools of thoughts, what is also gradually eroding is the influence of elders and jirga politics.The jirga provides a prefect excuse for the State to keep away from the problems and provides an instrument to maintain law and order. Failure of governance also provided space for other groups to express the local sentiments. While in other parts of the FATA, this expression has taken a religious (orthodox Sunni version adopted by Taliban) course, in Orakzai and Kurram, it has also assumed a sectarian nature. The influence of these sectarian organizations can be fought by the State only by expanding the governance process inside these regions.CONCLUSION Si nce the late 1980s, the Shia-Sunni sectarian violence has engulfed almost the entire province of Punjab and certain parts of the North-Western Frontier Province (Khyber pakhtoonkhawa ). Though sectarian conflict is not a new phenomenon, the scope, intensity and the continuity of the ongoing violent phase are unprecedented in the history of Pakistan. Jhang in Punjab province was the first district to fall prey to the increased and persistent nature of sectarian violence in the 1980s.The Shia-Sunni sectarian conflict cannot be explained in religious and ideological terms alone; notwithstanding the fact that the religious and sectarian idiom is frequently used by religious leaders from the pulpit to encourage violence, mobilize their followers and achieve political goals. In the context of sectarian violence, the local contextual realities have been of critical significance. The external stimuli might have played some catalyst role in terms of triggering off and accelerating the proces s of shift from the dormant sectarian conflict to the violent one.But what is important to note is that the potency of external stimuli and the nature of reaction they might provoke are determined at the local levels. The likelihood of a shift from dormant to violent conflict, however, increases if the institutional and legal structures in a given state fail to adjust and accommodate to the changing socio-economic realities and/or lack capacity to effectively respond and check the external stimuli. Shia-Sunni conflict is primarily a manifestation of the socio-economic changes at the grassroots level, which have given rise to political tensions among different classes of society.Selected Bibliography Secondary Sources Books: Ahmad, Mumtaz. `Continuity and Change in the Traditional System of Islamic Education: The Case of Pakistan'. (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2000). Ahmed, Qeyamuddin. The Wahabi Movement in India (New Delhi: Manohar Press, 1994). Jafri, S. H. M. The Origins an d Early Development of Shia Islam (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2000). Kraan, J. D. Religious Education in Islam with Special Reference to Pakistan: An Introduction and Bibliography (Rawalpindi: Christian Study Centre, 1984).Nasr, Vali. The Shia Revival (Newyork:Norton, 2006). Nasr, Vali. Mawdudi and the Making of Islamic Revivalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996). Rashid, Ahmed. Taliban: Islam, Oil and the New Great Game in Central Asia (London: Taurus, 2000). Rashid, Ahmed. Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam in Central Asia (Lahore: Vanguard, 2002). Sanyal, Usha. Devotional Islam and Politics in British India: Ahmad Riza Khan Barelwi and His Movement, 1870-1920 (Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1996). Newspaper:Ahmed, Khalid. `The Power of the Ahle Hadith', The Friday Times, Lahore, 12-18 July 2002. Journal: Haqqani, Husain. `Islam's Medieval Outposts’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 82, No. 1, 2002, pp58-64. Klare, Michael. â€Å"Redefining Security: The New Global Sc hisms†, Current History, Vol. 95, No. 604, 1996, P161 Seminar paper Sectarianism in Pakistan Submitted to : Professor Dr Naseem Submitted by: Mati ullah Tareen IR 4th Department of International Relations Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan.