John Locke and Human Nature :: Second Treatise on Civil Government

In The Second Treatise of Government, Locke defines political power, discusses the inalienable birth-rights of man, and the need for both in the formation of a legitimate government. John Locke’s The Second Treatise of Government defines a legitimate government in relation to the protection of inalienable rights. He views a valid government as one which upholds his three main natural laws of life, liberty and property. In defining political power, Locke insists that it is proper to make laws â€Å"for the regulating and preserving of property,† and adds, that if necessary, â€Å"the execution of such laws, and in the defense of the common-wealth [sic] from foreign injury.† This is needed â€Å"for the public good.† (Locke, Sec. III) Defined, Locke’s political power is the ability to uphold a constitution. Locke’s reasoning for the creation of a government arises in the need to protect life, liberty and justice. Locke concludes that â€Å"the reason why men enter into society, is the preservation of their property; and the end why they choose and authorize a legislative,† but adds that the citizens â€Å"have a right to resume their original liberty †¦ by the establishment of a new legislative† (Locke, Sec. CCXXI) when those rights are threatened. The protection of life, liberty and justice then becomes the reason for a â€Å"new legislative.† The value Locke places on property is only furthered in his discussion of the will of the populace. Locke discusses in his chapter Of the Beginning of Political Societies the effect which the majority has on the betterment of the community: â€Å"For when any number of Men have, by the consent of every individual, made a Community, the have thereby made that Community one Body, with a Power to Act as one Body, which is only by the will and determination of the majority† (Locke, Sec.

Sectarianism in Pakistan

Sectarianism in Pakistan INTRODUCTION The decade of the 1990s witnessed a frightening upsurge in the Shia-Sunni sectarian violence in Pakistan, both in terms of scope and intensity. Recently, sectarian strife has engulfed even those areas, which were previously unaffected, largely because of the emergence of organized terrorist groups along sectarian lines. Besides target killings, these groups hit even ordinary members of each other’s sects. The problem, therefore, is no more of an occasional nature, or limited to isolated localities.Rather, it has now become a national concern with serious implications for the state and society. The paper argues that though the Shia-Sunni conflict is not new to Pakistan or even to the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent, the ongoing phase is distinct in several ways:  · Firstly, the level and intensity of violence is high because of easy access to weapons and training facilities in Afghanistan.  · Secondly, certain Islamic states such as Iran and Saudi Arabia sponsor the activities of sectarian groups. This adds a regional dimension to the domestic sectarian conflict. Thirdly, the social base of the sectarian conflict has significantly expanded because of factors including: a) Use of print media, school textbooks, religious literature, posters and banners; b) Accessibility to means of electronic communication; c) Better transport services which increase mobility of sectarian activists. To argue thus this paper is divided into following three sections: 1) Sectarian Violence and its origins; 2) Causes of Sectarian Violence in Pakistan; and 3) Failure of State. SECTARIAN VIOLENCE AND ITS ORIGINS This section discusses the history of sectarian violence.Sectarian violence and religious extremism is an unpredictable menace. History is replete with incidents of such sorts in various countries. The bigots and the evil minded selfish natured people are behind this abhorrent act relating to the security concerns of many nations. Unfo rtunate is the fact that usually the third world Muslim countries have been and are being constantly threatened by these evil acts. Sectarian Violence in Muslim History: Since the very beginning, the Shia-Sunni sectarian conflict has been one of the major characteristics of Muslim history.Different factions in the respective Muslim societies have also closely interlinked it to the struggle for the acquisition of political power. Syed Amir Ali remarks: â€Å"Alas! That the religion of humanity and universal brotherhood should not have escaped the internecine strife and discord; that the faith which was to bring peace and rest to the distracted world should itself be torn to pieces by angry passions and the lust of power. â€Å"1 At the centre of sectarian strife has been the Shia-Sunni conflict.Immediately after the passing away of the Prophet of Islam, a division emerged on the question of succession. â€Å"A small group believed that such a function must remain in the family of the Prophet and backed ‘Ali’, whom they believed to have been designated for this role by appointment and testament. They became known as his ‘partisans’ (shia) while the majority agreed on Abu Bakr on the assumption that the Prophet left no instruction on this matter; they gained the name ‘The People of Prophetic Tradition and consensus of opinion’ (ahl al-sunnah wa’l-jama‘ah). â€Å"Besides the political dimension, there also existed a difference of opinion about the merits and functions of the successor to the Prophet. â€Å"Sunni Islam considered the Khalifah to be a guardian of the Sharia‘h in the community, while Shi‘ism saw in the ‘successor’ a spiritual function connected with the esoteric interpretation of the revelation and the inheritance to the Prophet’s esoteric teachings. † In contrast to the Sunnis, the institution of Imamate is fundamental to the Shia Islam. â€Å"The Imam, 1 Syed Amir Ali, The Spirit of Islam (Karachi: Pakistan Publishing House, 1976), p100. esides being a descendant of the Prophet, must possess certain qualities—he must be Ma‘sum or sinless, bear the purest and most unsullied character, and must be distinguished above all other men for truth and purity. † Whereas, the Sunnis believe that the â€Å"Imamate is not restricted to the family of Mohammad. The Imam need not be just, virtuous, or irreproachable (Ma ‘sum) in his life, nor need he be the most excellent or eminent being of his time; so long as he is free, adult, sane, and possessed of the capacity to attend to the ordinary affairs of State, he is qualified for election. 2 Later, both the Shia and Sunni schools further split into several sub-sects on different issues related to succession, interpretation of scriptures and political theory of Islam. Sectarian conflict in the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent: Fearing persecution by Ummayeds and later Abbasides, some of the Shias had moved to the distant parts of the Muslim Empire. Sizeable Shia communities had been established in Punjab and Sindh after their conquest by Muhammad bin Qasim.Under the early Abbasides, the governor of Jhang, Umar bin Hafas, was a clandestine supporter of Fatimid’s movement and it was under him that the Batinya influence spread into the areas between Shorkot and Sindh. Later, one of the Shia branch, the Karamata, was able to set up its independent dynasty in Multan. The Karamata had established contacts with the Fatimides in Egypt and continued to rule Multan and 2 Syed Amir Ali, The Spirit of Islam (Karachi: Pakistan Publishing House, 1976), p103. urrounding areas, which included parts of Jhang, until Mahmud Ghaznavi defeated and destroyed their â€Å"heretical† dynasty. With this, the Karamata movement was wiped out in the Indo-Pakistan context, as it could not survive the loss of political power. However, it left a deep religious imprint on the local population. This is one of the reasons why even today southern Punjab inhabits a sizeable Shia population. In southern India, the Bahmani and Adil Shahi dynasties which ruled for quite some time and acted as a bulwark against Marhattas, professed Shia doctrines.These dynasties were brought under the control of Mughals under Aurangzeb (d. 1707), which opened the way for the rise of Marhattas. Aurangzeb was allegedly hostile to the Shia dynasties, largely because he considered them heretical. As the Shia dynasties were receiving support from the Safavides of Iran, who were hostile to the Mughals, he had made an offer of alliance to Bukhara. The weakening and disintegration of the Mughal Empire, after the death of Aurangzeb Alamgir, paved the way for a qualitatively different era in the Muslim history of the Sub-continent.The new era witnessed, on one hand, the onslaught of the British with both colonial and western agenda and, on the other, the rise of Marhattas and Sikhs. Mean while, the early successors of Aurangzeb had come under the influence of their Shia courtiers, the Sayyids of Barha. It was in response to these developments that Shah Waliullah (1703-1762) started his reform movement to reassert Islam. Another was the Wahabi movement of Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd al Wahhab (1703-1787), which started in Saudi Arabia, but had a great impact on the religious scene of India.Both these movements played a major role in the making of today’s religio-political scene of India and Pakistan. The Wahabi movement emphasised essentials, preached reverting back to the original sources of Quran and Sunnah, and rejected many of the innovations and cultural adaptations made over centuries in the Indian context. It was vehemently opposed to the Sufi tradition and other divergent schools of thought such as Shia‘ism. Essentially, this movement was exclusionist, and far less tolerant and accommodative of divergence, heterogeneity and variations in religious ma tters.It lambasted the corruption and laxity of the Muslims’ attitudes and rejected the accommodations and cultural richness of the medieval empire. Its sole emphasis was on the classical law, which, in the view of its champions, was the sum and substance of the faith. It was, despite the fact that many leaders of the jihad movement were not blind followers of Muhammad Ibn, ‘Abd al Wahhab to warrant the term â€Å"Wahabi† for them. Given their extremist credentials, however, the term was widely accepted and is still used in Pakistan3 for the people with similar puritan views.They are also called Ahl-i-Hadith. Shah Wali Ullah, however, started the most significant reform movement, in the 18th century. Like Wahabis, Shah Waliullah strongly condemned the corrupted Sufi customs and practices, but he was a Hanafi and his version of purified Islam was not completely rejectionist. He himself was a Sufi. He tried to postulate an interpretation of Islam that would coalesc e into a purified Sufism with a purified Sunnah. The Shah Wali Ullah’s movement later crystallized into the Deoband movement, founded by 3Qeyamuddin Ahmed, The Wahabi Movement in India (New Delhi: Manohar, 1994), p203. Maulana Qasim Nanotawi, in the then United Provinces of British India in 1867. In 1857, Maulana Nanotawi had actively taken part in the rebellion against the British. Through the Deoband movement, however, he and his colleagues sought to achieve their goals through peaceful resistance. The goal, under the circumstances, was nothing but cultural and religious freedom and political independence. In the following years, the Deoband movement adopted the attitude of peaceful resistance and non-co-operation towards the British.They refused to learn the English language and modern knowledge, and emphasised Arabic and teachings of Islamic classics. In religious terms, the Deoband movement continued to largely profess Shah Waliullah’s teachings with puritan empha sis. Originally, the Deoband School had a policy of non-involvement into sectarian controversies, but later, especially under Maulana Rashid Ahmad Gangohi, the Hanafis became divided into rival groups. Among others, it was because Maulana Gangohi had condemned â€Å"the annual gatherings at the tombs of saints as well as the prevalent rites of fatihah and milad†.These differences were a manifestation of dissatisfaction of the Deoband School with the things as they existed and its determination to improve them. The puritan emphasis of Wahabis and Deobandis generated tensions among Muslims. The followers of Sufi Islam did not accept the puritan emphasis which, in their view, amounted to renunciation of mystic conception of Islam. It was, however, Maulana Ahmad Raza Khan (1856-1921) who founded the Brelvi School4 by setting up a 4 Usha Sanyal, Devotional Islam and Politics in British India: Ahmad Riza Khan Barelwi and His Movement, 1870-1920 (Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1996 ), p44. adrasa at Breli in the United Provinces. Unlike the puritans, the Brelvi school expressed and sustained â€Å"the social and religious customs of a decadent people: the civilization, or lack of it, into which India fell after the feudal Mughal culture had succumbed and before a new culture arose under the imperial British penetration. † Meanwhile, Lucknow had become the centre of Shia activism. The confrontation between these schools later spread to the whole of the Indo-Pakistan Sub-continent. In particular, it resulted in increased incidents of Shia-Sunni violence.Later, however, the emergence of Amada movement, whose founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, claimed to be the prophet, prompted a unified reaction from all of the above mentioned schools. The Ahmadis, who are also called as Qadianis and Mirzais, were declared non-Muslims by all of the above groups. This declaration was formulated on the basis that they do not believe in the finality of the prophet hood of Muhammad . This controversy overshadowed the differences among the rest of the sectarian groups for decades until they were formally declared non-Muslims through a Constitutional Amendment in Pakistan in 1974.The nature of Shia-Sunni violence under the British was radically different than it had been under the earlier Muslim empires or caliphates. Previously, it was always a conflict either between the established Sunni authorities and anti-status quo Shia denominations or between the Sunni and Shia dynasties or caliphates. Under the alien rule of the British, the conflict declined to the communities’ level, involving the general public and theologians alike in sectarian violence.The role of the government was limited to that of arbiter, enforcer of law or manipulator, if so required, in the larger colonial interests. However, the state was secular and largely unrepresentative and, therefore, the use of sectarian idiom was limited to the purpose of selfidentification. The problem of s ectarian conflict in the post-independence years can be analyzed both in terms of the continuation of old historical pattern with certain new characteristics and, as a direct consequence of crises of identity and governance in Pakistan.It may be noted that the political discourse at macro level has revolved around the issues of Islamization vs. modernization, centralization vs. provincial autonomy, and democracy vs. authoritarianism in Pakistan since independence. The persistent ambivalence towards these issues has led the Pakistani State into a crisis of identity, causing frustration among almost all the sections of society including modernists, Islamists and various ethnic communities.The frustration has become further intensified in view of the failure of successive governments on the performance front, especially in terms of giving due representation to the marginalized sections of society in the top state institutions. Sectarian Conflicts in Pakistan: There are numerous sectari an divisions in Pakistan. One source puts the total number of Muslim sects and sub sects at 72. 5 The Sunni population subdivides into four major streams–Deobandis, Barelvis, Ahl-e Hadith and Wahabis–and within these there are 5 Sectarian Division of Muslims† (Bureau Report), The Times, London, 28 Sept. 1998. reportedly dozens of subgroups6. Despite these divisions, the majority of Sunnis in Pakistan follow the Hanafi School of Islamic jurisprudence7 The Sunni population is estimated to be 74 per cent of Pakistan's population. The three Shia streams in Pakistan are the Ismailis, the Ithna Ashariyya and the Bohras. 8 Estimates of the size of the Shia population vary widely, from a low of 5 per cent to a high of 25 percent; most sources put it at 15-20 per cent. During the Pakistan movement, the essentially secular leaders of the Muslim League had used the idiom of ‘Muslim identity’ to mobilize masses and to justify a separate homeland for them. Intere stingly, almost all the major religious parties of that time had opposed the demand of Pakistan either on the grounds that the concept of separate nationhood was not tenable from the perspective of Islam, or that the secular leadership of Muslim League could not be trusted to sincerely fulfill the promise of the creation of an Islamic state.Nonetheless, the Muslim League succeeded in creating Pakistan, despite the opposition of religious parties. As a result, the Islamic identity of the migrant communities, which settled mostly in the urban areas of Punjab and Sindh, was reinforced and they began to act as the major vehicle for the Islamization campaign in Pakistan. It was, in contrast to other ethnic groups such as Sindhis, Baluchis and Pakhtuns who, while de-emphasizing the ideological debate, championed the cause of decentralization and provincial autonomy. 6 7 The Sub-Sects of Muslims† (Report), The Economist, London, 28 Jan 1995. Daniel Pipes, Islam and Islamic Groups (De troit: Gale Research, 1992), p184. 8 Ibid. p185. 9 Muhammad Qasim Zaman, â€Å"Sectarianism in Pakistan: The Radicalization of Shi‘i and Sunni Identities†, Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 32, No. 3, July 1998. Gradually, groups emerged out of the existing religious parties, which started emphasizing the sectarian differences with the professed aim of persuading the state to accept their particular views into legislation and its policies.In the following years, Punjab was to become the major victim of sectarian violence. Today sectarian violence has become widespread, particularly between Shi’a and Sunni militants in areas bordering Afghanistan, while dozens of tribal elders were murdered by militants in Waziristan. CAUSES OF SECTARIAN VIOLENCE IN PAKISTAN This section discusses the main reasons which led to sectarian violence in Pakistan. Pakistan, one of the largest Muslim countries the world, has seen serious Shia-Sunni sectarian violence. Almost 70% of Pakistan's M uslim population is Sunni, and another 30% are Shia.However, but this Shia minority forms the second largest Shia population of any country,10 larger than the Shia majority in Iraq. In the last two decades, as many as 4,000 people are estimated to have died in sectarian fighting in Pakistan, 300 in 2006. 11 Amongst the culprits blamed for the killing are Al Qaeda working â€Å"with local sectarian groups† to kill what they perceive as Shi'a apostates, and â€Å"foreign powers †¦ trying to sow discord. â€Å"12 10 Vali Nasr, The Shia Revival (Newyork:Norton, 2006), p160. â€Å"Shiite-Sunni conflict rises in Pakistan,† by David Montero, February 02, 2007. 11 12 Shiite-Sunni conflict rises in Pakistan,† by David Montero, February 02, 2007. Since 2004, there has been intense violence in the FATA. What started in South Waziristan, slowly spread to North Waziristan in 2005 and then later to Bajaur and Mohamand Agency during 2006 and 2007. For the last two years, this violence has spread to the settled districts of the Khyber Pakhtoonkhawa including Bannu, DI Khan, Peshawar and Swat. Led by the Taliban and its local supporters in the FATA and Khyber Pakhtoonkhawa , this violence is posing a serious threat to the process of governance, challenging the writ of the State.Referred to by media as Talibanization, these developments has been the subject of intense academic, media and policy interest. Many factors contributed to the growth of sectarian violence since the 1980s and 90s. While some were direct causes, others indirectly deepened the sectarian fault lines. Some of them are: Sectarian Politics: The following factors increased the sectarian divide, which was embedded in Pakistani society in the 1980s, especially in Punjab. First, the formation of Shia and Sunni militant organizations which were not representative of their respective communities although there was support from them.The formation of the militant Sunni Sipah-i-Sahaba, Pakis tan (SSP) and the Shia Sipah-i-Mohammad, Pakistan (SMP) was the main factor underlying the escalating conflict between the two communities. Apart from the Sipah-i-Sahaba, other Sunni organizations like Sunni Tehrik were formed in Sindh. Later some SSP activists led by Riaz Basra organized the Lashkar-e-Jhangvi (LJ), named after the founder of the SSP. The LJ was more militant and has been banned. These organizations widened the sectarian divide and both groups started using violence against each other. The strength of these militant sectarian organizations increased in the 1980s nd 90s, and they were only banned by General Musharraf in January 2002. Second, factionalism within the religious parties and militant organizations deepened the sectarian divide. The Jamiat-ul-Islam (JUI) got divided into two factions led by Fazl-ur-Rahman and Sami-ul-Haq and both factions attempted to build their foundations on anti-Shia tenets with each trying to be more virulently anti-Shia. Even the mil itant organizations on both sides (the SSP and the SMP) faced divisions, and these factions, devoid of effective leadership, were involved in arbitrary killings of the other community.Religious parties like the JUI provided indirect support to militant organizations. It is essential to understand that sectarian violence is largely limited to Punjab, especially in the district of Jhang, where the mainstream religious parties never enjoyed popular support. Baluchistan had been free of sectarian violence and so was Sind, except for Karachi. The Jamiat Ulema-i-Pakistan (JUP), which enjoys support at the popular level in Punjab belongs to the Brehlvi faith and does not share the antagonism of the Deobandis and Wahabis towards the Shias.In fact, unlike the latter two, the JUP considers them to be Muslims and a part of the Islamic world. Third, sectarian violence in Punjab was primarily due to Shia-Sunni economic, social and political relations. For example in Jhang, where sectarian violen ce is high, the Shia community forms the upper class, being landlords and enjoying political power; the majority Sunni community forms the lower stratum in the social, economic and political hierarchy. When the Sunni middle class grew, especially in the 1970s as a result of better education and remittances from the Gulf, they demanded their share of ocial and political status, which was resisted by the Shias. Maulana Nawaz Jhangvi, assassinated in 1990 by Shia militants, formed the Sipah-i-Sahaba in Jhang in1985, largely to fight the Shia landlords. Anti-Shia groups: Anti-Shia groups in Pakistan include the Lashkar i Jhangvi and Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan, offshoots of the Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam (JUI). The groups demand the expulsion of all Shias from Pakistan and have killed hundreds of Pakistani Shias between 1996 and 1999. 13 As in Iraq they â€Å"targeted Shia in their holy places and mosques, especially during times of communal prayer. â€Å"14From January to May 1997, Sunni terro r groups assassinated 75 Shia community leaders â€Å"in a systematic attempt to remove Shias from positions of authority. â€Å"15 Lashkar i Jhangvi has declared Shia to be `American agents` and the `near enemy` in global jihad. 16 Islamization policies of Zia: Islamic policies introduced by Zia-ul-Haq were also responsible for the growth of sectarian violence inside Pakistan. An in-depth analysis would reveal that these policies were cosmetic and peripheral, as they did not impinge 13 Ahmed Rashid, Taliban: Islam, oil and the new great game in central Asia (London: Tauris, 2000), p194. 14Vali Nasr, The Shia Revival (Newyork:Norton, 2006), p166. Vali Nasr, The Shia Revival (Newyork:Norton, 2006), p167. Ibid. p168. 15 16 on the bureaucratic military oligarchy or the feudal structure of the society. In fact, these policies were aimed at gaining legitimacy within Pakistan and were not meant to challenge the existing social and economic institutions. However, the Islamization policie s exerted a negative influence on the two communities. The Sunni religious parties led by JUI and JUP became active vis-a-vis the Shias, as they wanted the State to introduce the Sunnization of Pakistan, which the Shias feared.This made the Shias defensive and they started supporting the PPP. In July 1980, 25,000 Shia portested the Islamization laws in the capital Islamabad. Besides, the changes made by Zia led to intense competition amongst the various Sunni groups, especially the Wahabis, Deobandis and Brehlvis, as they wanted the State to enforce their own version of Islam, especially the Islamic laws, though they were united in their opposition to Shias. However, the Islamic reforms introduced by Zia, especially relating to the legal field, alarmed the Shia community.The Tehrik-i-Nifaz-i-Fiqh-iJafriya (TNFJ) was formed in 1979 to enforce the Jafri fiqh; earlier in the same year Zia had declared that the Hanafi fiqh would be enforced. The formation of TNFJ was the political respo nse of the Shia community. In its early years it fought to get concessions such as exempting the Shia community from paying zakat and ushr. Jihad in Afghanistan: Pakistan’s Afghan policy in the 1980s and 90s aggravated sectarian violence inside the country. Afghan resistance against the Soviet Union in the 1980s resulted in the proliferation and easy availability of small arms in Pakistan. 7 The emergence of and subsequent growth of the Taliban in the 1990s and 17 Michael Klare, â€Å"Redefining Security: The New Global Schisms†, Current History, Vol. 95, No. 604, 1996, p161. their support to Sunni organizations such as the Harkat-ul-Mujahideen impinged directly on sectarian violence. The Sipah-i-Sahaba cadres were trained in Afghanistan and most of them fought the Taliban in Afghanistan and the Shias inside Pakistan. Iran-Iraq War: The impact of the emergence of the Khomeini regime in 1979 in Iran and the subsequent Iran-Iraq war in the early 1980s on sectarian violen ce in Pakistan has generally been underestimated.It is no coincidence that the TNFJ, the main Shiite party in Pakistan, was formed in 1979. When the Iran-Iraq war started, the Muslim world got divided into two camps and started funding their faith. As a result, enormous funds flowed, especially from Saudi Arabia and Iran, into Pakistan to support the various Sunni and Shia organizations and the madras as run by them respectively, which were directly responsible for the growth of organized opposition and violence. Iranian Funding: Exacerbating tensions is Iranian funding of Shia extremists in Pakistan, who not only exact revenge against Sunnis, but have also been used to violently uppress Iranian dissidents in the country who are critical of the Iranian regime. Shia formed student associations and a Shia party with the fundings from Iran, Sunni began to form sectarian militias recruited from Deobandi and Ahl-i Hadith madrasahs. Preaching against the Shia in Pakistan was radical cleri c Israr Ahmed. Muhammad Manzour Numani, a senior Indian cleric with close ties to Saudi Arabia published a book entitled â€Å"Iranian Revolution: Imam Khomeini and Shiism†. The book, which became â€Å"the gospel of Deobandi militants† 18 in the 1980s, attacked Khomeini and argued the excesses of the 8 Vali Nasr, The Shia Revival (Newyork:Norton, 2006), p164. Islamic revolution were proof that Shiism was not the doctrine of misguided brothers, but beyond the Islamic pale. Pakistan is the only Sunni majority country where Shias have been elected to top offices and played an important part in the country's history and nation building. The founder of Pakistan Muhammed Ali Jinnah, Muhammad Ali Bogra and the Bhutto family are Shia Muslims, as is Asif Ali Zardari, Abida Hussian, Faisal Saleh Hayat and several other top ranking Pakistani Politicians and Generals such as Yahya Khan,Musa Khan andIskander Mirza. Jihad in Kashmir: Pakistan’s support and involvement in Kas hmir was also responsible for sectarian violence. While the Lashkar-e-Taiba and the Hizbul Mujahideen do not indulge in sectarian violence inside Pakistan, the same cannot be said about other jihadi groups, especially the Harkat-ul-Mujahideen and, its later incarnation, the Jaish-eMohammad. Both these groups were trained in Afghanistan under the Taliban and were close to Lashkar-e-Jhangvi, the most violent Sunni organization. Before the Musharraf regime started its rackdown on sectarian organizations in 2001, these three were involved in collecting funds for jihad in Kashmir. The security agencies could not do much, as they could not differentiate which organization was involved. Tribal Conflict in the khyber Pakhtoonkhawa : Tribal clashes between Pashtun tribes in the Northwest Frontier Province have also taken on a sectarian nature, with the Shia Orakzai tribe often battling with their Sunni neighbors. These clashes are centered around the town of Bannu, and have often turned dead ly.However, the conflict is rooted in centuries' old land disputes, and has only taken on a sectarian nature since the fanatic Taliban regime came into power in nearby Afghanistan in the 1990s. The Madrassas: Various madrassas, especially in Punjab and Karachi, accentuated existing sectarian cleavage. Each Sunni schism (Deobandi, Brehlvi, Wahabi) and Shias ran their own madrassas for providing basic education. The curriculum was decided by the madaris. As a result, when sectarian fault lines got pronounced, a hate campaign was introduced vis-a-vis the other sect.Besides, the madrassas also provided manpower for these sectarian organizations, leading to sectarian engagements on the streets and dividing them further. About one-third of the 2,50019 registered madrassas in Punjab are known to impart military training to their students, and to be directly involved in sectarian attacks. The communities started defending their faith by protecting and supporting the offenders instead of con demning their violence. This support took the form of political, personal and financial patronage, which only accentuated the cycle of violence. 19Iqbal Quadir, â€Å"Madrassa Culture in Pakistan†, HRCP Journal, Vol. 8, No. 3, Nov 1998. FAILURE OF STATE What has been clear since the beginning of this sectarian conflict in Pakistan is the complete failure of the State, from Zia’s period onwards. It was unfortunate that during Zia’s period in the 1980s the Turis of Kurram Agency became the pawns in Pakistan’s larger game in Afghanistan. The State failed to understand Turi fears and insecurity, and has failed to understand them ever since. The emergence of the Taliban and the growth of sectarian politics in the 1990s further aggravated the situation.Given the sensitivities the State forces should have taken extra care in preventing the movement of battle hardened Sunni Taliban with their sectarian streak into sensitive places. Unfortunately, the State was ne ver keen in enforcing its writ in the tribal agencies. The questions of State’s failure should be seen in the context of its wider historical lack of interest in maintaining its writ in the FATA. It allowed its writ to erode in the name of maintaining tribal customs and traditions. It even exploited the same customs and traditions to pursue its larger strategic interests in Afghanistan.The Pakistani state has failed to understand that the situation has been dramatically changing over the last decade. A section within the FATA, especially amongst the younger generation, is highly influenced by the Taliban-al Qaeda brand of Islam, and prefers to adhere to their Islamic principles, rather than the age old secular tribal customs of the Pashtuns, referred to as Pashtunwali. Another section, within the young generation, exposed to modern education and democratic ideals, prefers the xpansion of State’s functions into tribal regions. Though both the above streams of youths are highly anti-American, they don’t agree with how they are being governed. While the Taliban supporters prefer to be governed under Shariah, the more modernminded others want the State expand its governance process. Thus, both sections want to repeal the archaic FCR, but for different reasons. More importantly, in the above two schools of thoughts, what is also gradually eroding is the influence of elders and jirga politics.The jirga provides a prefect excuse for the State to keep away from the problems and provides an instrument to maintain law and order. Failure of governance also provided space for other groups to express the local sentiments. While in other parts of the FATA, this expression has taken a religious (orthodox Sunni version adopted by Taliban) course, in Orakzai and Kurram, it has also assumed a sectarian nature. The influence of these sectarian organizations can be fought by the State only by expanding the governance process inside these regions.CONCLUSION Si nce the late 1980s, the Shia-Sunni sectarian violence has engulfed almost the entire province of Punjab and certain parts of the North-Western Frontier Province (Khyber pakhtoonkhawa ). Though sectarian conflict is not a new phenomenon, the scope, intensity and the continuity of the ongoing violent phase are unprecedented in the history of Pakistan. Jhang in Punjab province was the first district to fall prey to the increased and persistent nature of sectarian violence in the 1980s.The Shia-Sunni sectarian conflict cannot be explained in religious and ideological terms alone; notwithstanding the fact that the religious and sectarian idiom is frequently used by religious leaders from the pulpit to encourage violence, mobilize their followers and achieve political goals. In the context of sectarian violence, the local contextual realities have been of critical significance. The external stimuli might have played some catalyst role in terms of triggering off and accelerating the proces s of shift from the dormant sectarian conflict to the violent one.But what is important to note is that the potency of external stimuli and the nature of reaction they might provoke are determined at the local levels. The likelihood of a shift from dormant to violent conflict, however, increases if the institutional and legal structures in a given state fail to adjust and accommodate to the changing socio-economic realities and/or lack capacity to effectively respond and check the external stimuli. Shia-Sunni conflict is primarily a manifestation of the socio-economic changes at the grassroots level, which have given rise to political tensions among different classes of society.Selected Bibliography Secondary Sources Books: Ahmad, Mumtaz. `Continuity and Change in the Traditional System of Islamic Education: The Case of Pakistan'. (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2000). Ahmed, Qeyamuddin. The Wahabi Movement in India (New Delhi: Manohar Press, 1994). Jafri, S. H. M. The Origins an d Early Development of Shia Islam (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2000). Kraan, J. D. Religious Education in Islam with Special Reference to Pakistan: An Introduction and Bibliography (Rawalpindi: Christian Study Centre, 1984).Nasr, Vali. The Shia Revival (Newyork:Norton, 2006). Nasr, Vali. Mawdudi and the Making of Islamic Revivalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996). Rashid, Ahmed. Taliban: Islam, Oil and the New Great Game in Central Asia (London: Taurus, 2000). Rashid, Ahmed. Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam in Central Asia (Lahore: Vanguard, 2002). Sanyal, Usha. Devotional Islam and Politics in British India: Ahmad Riza Khan Barelwi and His Movement, 1870-1920 (Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1996). Newspaper:Ahmed, Khalid. `The Power of the Ahle Hadith', The Friday Times, Lahore, 12-18 July 2002. Journal: Haqqani, Husain. `Islam's Medieval Outposts’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 82, No. 1, 2002, pp58-64. Klare, Michael. â€Å"Redefining Security: The New Global Sc hisms†, Current History, Vol. 95, No. 604, 1996, P161 Seminar paper Sectarianism in Pakistan Submitted to : Professor Dr Naseem Submitted by: Mati ullah Tareen IR 4th Department of International Relations Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Pakistan.

Men versus Womens View on Abortion - 1264 Words

Men Versus Women’s View on Abortion Pro-life or Pro-choice. Pro-life is being on the side of giving an unborn baby the gift of life. Pro-choice is just the opposite, it is choosing to â€Å"reverse† the life that is within the womb. There are various consequences when choosing to follow the procedure of abortion. Many are aware of those consequences as well as many are not, because of this it does affect the choice of the men and women who choose to have this procedure or not or whether it is the right or the wrong thing to do. Like Sollisch (2006) included in his personal experience with abortion â€Å"†¦a mistake that an abortion could reverse but never erase† (p. 2). Sollisch first agreed for his girlfriend to abort but once he got married and his new wife gave him a child he realized why people were against it and understood the meaning of life. While many may think that abortion is not an appropriate way to get out of what they see as a â€Å"problem†, many people in both genders do consi der abortion as a â€Å"problem solver†. Even after all those excuses; there are amounts of other reasons why a person decides if they are with abortion or against it. Whether it is the level of education, the circumstance they are in or the simple fact of being at a young age can also affect the view, depending on the gender. Men’s Point of View Allot (2012) states â€Å"the real dividing lines are elsewhere. Education, age, religiosity, political affiliation, marital status and even regional differences play aShow MoreRelatedThe Contraception And The World Health Organization1016 Words   |  5 Pagesmales and females. There are methods like: condoms, vasectomies, tube tying, pills, and more importantly abortion. Since it’s women who have to endure nine months to give birth to child they may or may not want, women should have the choice on whether or not they want to go through with the pregnancy, and they shouldn’t be limited to the contraceptive means. The issue on whether or not abortion is rightful or unconstitutional mainly comes down to one’s morals. The World Health Organization createdRead MoreThe Struggle For Improving Reproductive Rights1279 Words   |  6 Pagestheir maternal decisions, whether that is in choosing surrogacy, abortion, and even those who choose different forms of contraception. Over the years, Planned Parenthood and other health services have recieved a negative connotation for what services they provide, especially on the basis of providing abortion services. With our new president in office, women are concerned that their reproductive rights, such as the right to have an abortion, and rights to use contraception will be revoked. Women are currentlyRead MoreWomen Have A History Of Fighting For Their Rights Essay1461 Words   |  6 Pagesmany, such as women’s health issues. If we go back in history, when Margaret Sanger did the â€Å"unspeakable† in 1916 and opened the first U.S. bir th-control clinic in Brooklyn, New York and that moment became chaos. Despite her courage, she was arrested ten days later and her clinic was shut down. However, Margaret Sanger did not give up on what she believed was her rights and reopened the clinic in 1923 in New York City. This was the first time a woman set out to find â€Å"justice† in women’s health. MargaretRead More The Womens Movement Essay1459 Words   |  6 PagesThe Womens Movement Works Cited Missing The women’s movement began in the nineteenth century when groups of women began to speak out against the feeling of separation, inequality, and limits that seemed to be placed on women because of their sex (Debois 18). 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I will discuss the historical and analytical background by explaining pre Row versus Wade, and post Row versus Wade. I will be explaining this issue on a National level, and discuss how women’s role in society has changed dramatically since the famous trial. Introduction nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Abortion is the act of ending a pregnancy, either through surgery or by taking medication, with theRead MoreHuman Rights And Reproductive Rights Essay1222 Words   |  5 Pagesdespite most of us, especially in a liberal democracy, where we tend to view human rights in a similar manner. When examining human rights even further, there are clear ties to equality, another issue that affects nearly everyone through means of privilege or prejudice. A crucial aspect of achieving equality between the sexes is giving women the right to control what happens to their own reproductive organs without the approval of men. Lynn M. Morgan, medical anthropologist scholar and author of â€Å"ReproductiveRead MoreArtificial Silk Girl Essay1316 Words   |  6 Pagesbanned many authors that belied their social and political agendas. As a sensual, manipulative woman Keun’s Doris directly contradicts the classic feminine values the Nazis and other conservatives yearned f or in 1930’s Germany. Similar disdain for women’s rights and other socially liberal policies was garnered throughout Europe in a time where new opinions could spread more quickly than ever before. Before understanding the banning of The Artificial Silk Girl, it is essential to understand the starkRead MoreWomen s Rights By Judith Jarvis Thomson s A Defense Of Abortion1614 Words   |  7 Pageshumanity; more specifically women’s rights. What rights women should or should not have, as well as what rights women do or do not have, has been expanding in almost all aspects of society in recent years. In fact even in our most modern and well known political events was centered around this topic, and that was our 2017 presidential election. â€Å"Human rights are women’s rights and women’s rights are human rights† Says Hillary Clinton. However what does the matter of women’s rights entail? For instanceRead MoreFeminism : A Social, Economic, And Social Equality Of The Sexes1465 Words   |  6 Pagesperson’s reputation, it can give someone new views on the world, it can destroy relationships, it can build new ones; this single word can change lives. Most people categorize â€Å"feminism† as a code for women that tells them to hate men, not shave, burn bras, be vegan, and if there is any time left over maybe, just maybe, to fight for women’s rights. Now, there are definitely feminists that fulfill this stereotype but the vast majority of women and men do not. According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary

Diseases Cancer Clusters - 1397 Words

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2013) defines cancer clusters as a larger than anticipated amount of similar cancer cases arising at a given time among members of a defined community. Cancer clusters present many challenges due to the complexity of the analytic process and the abundance of inquiries and concerns. Because the research and studies of cancer clusters in the United States have uncovered few conclusive determinants, many states are hesitant in dedicating excess resources and money to the meticulous processes. Seeing the issue of discovering potential environmental hazards as a priority, Maryland is employing a specifically appointed workgroup to process all community concerns to enforce serious†¦show more content†¦Without the knowledge of cases in specific areas, a potential cluster may be dismissed due to insufficient data. There should be further investigation in prevalent traits of the potential cluster to ensure safety (Penberthy et al. , 2012). Using the CDC’s guidelines, shaped by the National Center for Environmental Health (NCEH), as the basis for constructing legislation, each state has developed its own public health investigation response and analytic strategy regarding disease clustering (Kingsley et al., 2007). In Maryland, this was done through two legislative bills proposed to the Maryland General Assembly (GA) in the 2013 Regular Session, House Bill 1343 (HB1343) and Senate Bill 0380 (SB380). HB1343 and SB380 will help distinguish cancer clusters around the state of Maryland, and determine potential environmental factors contributing to cancer within a specific community. Amendments found in the Third Reading of both bills mandate the inclusion of the following members within the workgroup: one member of Maryland’s Senate, one member of the House of Delegates, representatives of local medical schools, patient-advocates, scientists, environmentalists, and at least one representative of a Maryland manufacturing company. This systematic group is responsible for submitting reports of its analyses and discoveries to the Governor and GA by June 30 of 2014, at which time the Department of Health and Medical Hygiene (DHMH) willShow MoreRelated Lung Cancer Essay925 Words   |  4 PagesBrief Description: Lung cancer, as with all cancers, is an uncontrollable increase of cells. It happens within the lung tissue, but it could also go on to affect other nearby tissue and spre ad to further out than just the lungs. Cellular / Molecular Basis: Lung cancer has two types; small cell and non small cell. The two types can be identified by their appearance when looked at with a microscope. It usually affects the cells that are lined along air passages in the lungs. Causes: The foremostRead MoreA Report On The Health Of Woburn Residents1117 Words   |  5 Pageschemicals found in wells G and H had any relationship with the leukemia clusters that emerged in the Woburn area. After a careful and detailed investigation, I have come to the conclusion that the hazardous chemicals that Beatrice Food Company and W.R. Grace are accused of dumping into the water supply played a significant role in the children of Woburn contracting leukemia. While there may have been cases of leukemia and other cancers in Woburn before the chemicals were dumped, childhood leukemia occurredRead MoreThe Image Processing Techniques For Breast Cancer1513 Words   |  7 Pagesimproving earlier detection and treatment stages, in which the time span or elapse is very important to discover the disease in the patient as possible as fast, especially in many tumours such as the lung cancer, breast cancer. This system generally first segments the area of interest (lung) and then an alyses the separately obtained area for nodule detection in order to examine the disease. Even with several lung tumour segmentations have been presented, enhancing tumour segmentation methods are stillRead MoreCancer Is An Issue Worldwide That Does Not Favor Race,1433 Words   |  6 PagesCancer is an issue worldwide that does not favor race, gender, ethnicity or socioeconomic status. Although, particular cancer’s can effect some individuals more than others. For example, breast cancer. According to the Center of Disease Control Preventions (2017), â€Å"Both women and men can get breast cancer, though it is much more common in women.† In the United States, breast cancer is the second leading cancer among women of any race. It is the most common cause of death from cancer among HispanicsRead MoreThe Use Of Breath Testing On The Management Of Cancer Patients1635 Words   |  7 PagesWith the ceaseless quest in health research for improved outcomes in the management of cancer patients, novel approaches to screening, diagnosis, and treatment are highly sought after. In particular, effective and relatively low cost screening tests may play an invaluable role in reducing patient mortality resulting from diagnosis early in the disease process which is crucial for proactive measures and successful therapy. 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Moreover, prolonged therapeutic action is so important in treatment of diseases such as cancerRead Morewrwrwrw6715 Words   |  27 PagesDetecting Mutual Functional Gene Clusters from Multiple Related Diseases Nan Duâˆâ€" , Xiaoyi Liâˆâ€" , Yuan Zhang†  and Aidong Zhangâˆâ€" âˆâ€" Computer Science and Engineering Department State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, U.S.A nandu,xiaoyili,azhang@buffalo.edu †  College of Electronic Information and Control Engineering Beijing University of Technology Beijing, China zhangyuan@emails.bjut.edu.cn Abstract—Discovering functional gene clusters based on gene expression data has been aRead MoreEssay about Childhood Cancer Clusters in California’s Central Valley1387 Words   |  6 PagesChildhood Cancer Clusters in California’s Central Valley Case report :Sakshi Arora March 22, 2012 This case study examines childhood cancers in agricultural communities of Mc Farland and Earlimart from 1978 to 1995. According to the local residents of these communities the main reason for cancer is contamination through pesticide in the agricultural farms which is the major source of employment for the residents of the community. McFarland is a small community in

The Catholic And Christian Marriages - 905 Words

Catholic and Christian marriages are very different in today’s society compared to many years ago. A traditional marriage is viewed differently in many ways, some of these changes are because of society. Such as many people do not view divorce as such a horrible act anymore, marriage is no longer just between a man and a woman, and many people find themselves getting married for the wrong reasons. Since these many changes have taken place the Christian and Catholic churches have converted many rules in order to conform to societal needs. Many years ago when a man and a woman got married, divorce was only allowed for a specific reason, since a marriage was supposed to be viewed as permanent. If a person was not safe in the relationship or if a partner was cheating, they could be granted a divorce. Although when divorce did happen, they could not get remarried as it was against the catholic and Christian religion. However in today’s society, many people get divorced for a ll types of reasons. As described by Dennis Rainey in an article titled What Does the Bible Say About Divorce? When is it Allowed? He states that â€Å"In our culture today many see divorce as a positive solution to a troubled marriage.† Many people will not stick around through a fight anymore, forcing people to just give up on a relationship and get divorced. Rainey also said that Harvard sociologist Armand Nicholi III concluded, â€Å"Divorce is not a solution, but an exchange of problems.† People also tend to notShow MoreRelatedEssay on A Christians View of Marriage1318 Words   |  6 PagesChristians View of Marriage Some Christians believe that marriage should be the ultimate relationship. When two people get married they make a vow to stay in a life long committed relationship. . 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The government class’s twelve students collaborated over the course approximately two weeks to create an unbiased poll with concise demographic questions and current political issues. The twelve students broke down into groups of four to formulate questions. After researching current topics and forming the questions,Read MoreThe Marriage Of Same Sex Marriage861 Words   |  4 PagesRedefining Marriage Same sex marriage has been an ongoing debate for many years. Gay people and gay supporters believe that they should be treated equally to marry whoever they want because it is how they feel and people should be understanding of that. By being human they argue that it is their right to have equality. 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Its clear purpose is the begetting of children and mutual companionship and help. Virginity however, is the preferred state in Catholic belief. The primary purpose of marriage is to fulfill a vocation in the nature of man and woman, for

Applied Sociology Welfare and Health

Question: Describe about the Applied Sociology for Welfare and Health. Answer: Task 1: An overview of the British welfare state will be discussed involving the history, origin and leadership of the government. The reasons for health inequalities in the growth of the welfare state in Britain will be discussed. The historical evidence which reflects the fact that the British society has witnessed a lot of problems in the late eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century will be illustrated. The nature f the welfare provision involving the Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 and the various provisions would be discussed. The negative effects of the law and the consequences of the Boer war on health will be elaborately discussed. The Charles Booth and Seebohm Rowntrees research conducted in London and York to observe the level of poverty will be discussed. The 1800's were a time of liberal reform in Britain. These reforms came as a result of two things: the French Revolution and the industrial revolution. The idea of Liberalism in Britain influenced politics and lead to reform. This concept will be discussed. The reasons for changes in the British society structure due to Jarrow March" which led a protest march against poverty and unemployment in Britain will be elaborated. The way Beveridge Report" impacted on the society and the mode of tackling the "Giant Evils" will be discussed. The various Laws implemented to bring about changes in the British welfare state will be illustrated. Then the two theories will be evaluated namely the Marxist theory and the Feminist theory. The impact of the two theories on the British society will be discussed. The Marxist approach adopted an exceedingly functionalist considerate of the welfare state will be elaborated. The theory intends to recognize the gender inequality and also inspects womens experience, interests, social responsibilities and feminist politics in the various sectors. This will be illustrated. Haralambos, social perspectives based on health inequalities will be illustrated. Registrar Generals Class Classification Scale will be outlined and the impact of social classifications leading to the differences in the lifestyle of class I and V will be illustrated. The differences that exist between the class I and V based on the food, education, medical remedies, alcohol consumption and housing amenities will be discussed. An outline of the European Standard Mortality Rates based on the coronary heart diseases and lung cancer will be discussed. The report on the mortality rate differences in various years will be discussed. The Black report will be discussed involving the Artefact explanation, social selection, behavioural model and material deprivation. The discussion will be based on the inequalities among class I and V related to coronary heart diseases and lung cancer. A conclusion will be discussed based on the ideas generated after the end of the report. The bibliography will be based on the references used in discussing the points using the Harvard style citation. Appendix will involve The Registrar Generals Class Classification Scale, and European Standard Mortality Rates and the Black Report. Task 2: Introduction- The term welfare state is a notion of government which allows the state to play a significant part in the shielding and growth of the monetary and social well-being of the community of the nation. The whole concept is dependent on the philosophy of equal distribution of wealth, equality of chance and community responsibility for a standard life. On considering Britain, the base of the welfare state originated with the Liberal Party under the rule of the government headed by Prime ministers David Lloyd George and H. H. Asquith (Savage et al. 2013). The United Kingdom is a unitary state which involves the central government to direct most of the activities of the government. According to Friedman and Miles (2013), the British system has been categorized as a liberal welfare state system. Over the last two hundred years, Britain has experienced reflective changes in the nature and degree of the state welfare. The historical evidence reflects the fact that the British society has witnessed a lot of problems in the end phase of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century. This report highlights the nature of the British welfare state and how much impact it left on the development and the welfare provision regarding housing, health, education and etc. (Le Roux et al. 2012). Nature of State welfare provision - As stated by Mills (2014), the present social policies and welfare provision in Britain has connection and roots in the end phase of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century. The British policies relating to the social structure was dominated completely by Poor Laws. It was first passed in the year 1598 and continued till 1948.The Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 involved provisions for - The formation of overseers of assistance. An obligatory poor rate. Allowing the poor on work. Although the Law proposed was effective, there was no universal mechanism through which it could be enforced, and this law was inconsistent in certain areas. The social condition of Britain in that period involved modifications in the industrial revolution that caused growth in the town, rapid elevation in the population and initial experience of modern redundancy and the business cycle. Such extreme conditions lead to an elevation in the poor rates. The Poor Laws were not liked by the community (Savage et al. 2014). In terms of Charles Booth and Seebohm Rowntrees research conducted in London (1886-1903) and York (1899-1901) respectively, it was found that thirty percent of the people in London and thirty percent of the people in York were on positioned on the poverty line (Whelan et al. 2012). The Boer War reflected the illness and undernourishment among the labor classes and therefore developed a feeling of fear among the community for future generations being not able to uphold his military control of the Britain's empire. This war revealed the physical and mental consequences of poverty. The two factors that contributed to the poor condition of the soldiers were that the soldiers were not trained properly and were physically unprepared to face the war. Such conditions lead to high level of losses with regards to the British soldiers. Secondly, the policies such as scorched earth and also civilian internment devastated the civilian pool. Moreover, Germany appeared predominantly instructive for a lot of reasons. Both Britain and Germany were observed as conflicting poles amid industrialized and prosperous European nations. Although Germany, a late comer to industrialization, was a pioneer in wide-ranging schemes of state based social insurance, Britain being has industria lized sooner was held back. Moreover, the insurance system in Germany rapidly acquired recognition for generosity. As discussed me Mackenbach (2012), history reveals that Germany was strong in terms of military and economy. On the contrary, the British insurance system provided inadequate services. Such actions lead to an elevation in the poverty level (Bossert et al. 2013). The 1800's witnessed the liberal reform concept in Britain. The result of two revolutions lead to such reforms: the Industrial and French Revolution. The idea of Liberalism in Britain influenced politics and lead to reform. The major problem that existed in Britain in that era was that only men who owned some property had the right to participate in election, and wealthy landowners were elected to the "House of Commons." According to Scambler (2015), in 1900 the estimated population calculated that lived on the edge of poverty and starvation was found to be thirty percent. There lacked equality in the wealth and income. In the year 1906 the Liberal government introduced a numerous number of social reforms. The inclusions of this reform were free medical tests and treatment for pupils at school, workers were compensated for any sort of injuries at work, free meals were introduced in schools, and pension amount of five shillings was initiated for people over the age of seventy years. T he significant component of the reform was introduced in the year 1911 in the form of National Insurance Act that provided insurance for the working class people in time of sickness and also unemployment benefit was also introduced in certain sectors (Carter-Harris et al. 2014). The Liberal reform was on the verge of attaining success but e consequences of the first and Second World War lead to poverty and the outbreak of diseases. The Boer War made Britain realized that the country has very few friends. During this period Jarrow March led a protest march against poverty and unemployment in Britain. Such activities brought about a lot of changes in the structure of the British society. Britain needed such reforms in order to renovate the whole country against the disastrous effect of the world war. This march continued for twenty six days where the people who participated carried a petition requesting the British government to re-establish of new industry in the city. This march resulted in few immediate outcomes. In the duration of eighty years around one thousand ships were launched in the town Jarrow (Lebel et al. 2013). During the foundation of the welfare state in the United Kingdom, an influential document was produced commonly known as the Beveridge Report. This report was a part of the Social Insurance and Allied Services report of 1942. As stated by Munson and Saulnier (2014), this report was published in the middle of the war and according to the documents it promised to reward those who have sacrificed during those crucial periods. It was in the form of a post-war reform and was the basis of the Welfare State. This was leaded by the Liberal economist named William Beveridge who recognized five major Giant Evils in the society. The evils involved squalor, want, ignorance, diseases and idleness. In order to address the five evils a proper system of unemployment and sickness was required. The welfare state was established to fight against the five giant evils. Beveridge aimed to break the cycle of poverty which was the cause of insufficient shelter and restricted work ability of the members. The system involved National Health Service, full time employment policy and also family allowance. The reform got a structure when the Labour Party in the year 1945 won the general election and promised to address the five evils of the society. Recommendations were put into practice through a succession of acts of parliament such as the National Insurance Act, the National Health Service Act and National Assistance Act and beginning the contemporary welfare state. Some of the major implementation of the reform was pension policies for the elderly people, supply of milk and meals in the schools; emergency healthcare services were introduced and improvement in the diets of poor families. These provisions lead to a dramatic change in the social and economical condition of the country (Shilling, C., 2012). Theories of Welfare (a) Marxist theory: The Marxist theory refers to an approach to bring about welfare for the working classes. This theory is completely based on the philosophy of Karl Marx. Marxism has a multiple doctrine with a broad range of opinions involving an analytical framework which is critical of the capitalist society. If functionalism emphasized the constructive role that welfare spending had to participate in order to confirm the smooth performance of industrial society, a Marxist approach, while also accepting a superior functionalist thought of the welfare state, emphasized as an alternative that welfare expending was a opposing course which formed tendencies towards social, political and economic crisis (Hesse-Biber 2012). The welfare state which emerged in the highly developed capitalist society aids both in confirming the perseverance, constancy and regimented operation of the financial system and the welfare state established the connection of community and social classes and the preservation of social order. The main beliefs of the Marxist theory put down the common, negative restrictions of this autonomy. Some Marxists argued that the free health service is a victory for the working class. Marxist reasons set poverty in the situation of the class arrangement, purposely the association of social assembly inside a capitalist system of financial manufacture in which there were the oppressed and the exploiters (Hesse-Biber 2012). A key statement of the Marxist viewpoint is that material manufacture is the most basic of all human activities. These involved human necessities like food, clothing and shelter in a survival financial system, to the accumulation manufacturing of merchandise in contemporary capitalist societies.During this period of war, Britain has experienced a middle way situation with capitalism was on one side and communism on the other. The direction of this advances enhanced the welfare activities such as health care and income maintenance. (Hesse-Biber 2012) Criticism - The Marxists theory believed that the state first needs to be transformed and sooner or later overcome. There were two problems related to the principles of this theory firstly, it is not possible to transform the state and secondly, a society cannot exist without state power. (b) Feminist theory: The Feminist theory is a philosophical and theoretical extension of feminism. The theory intends to recognize the gender inequality and also inspects womens experience, interests, social responsibilities and feminist politics in the various sectors. As discussed by Hay (2016), the theory explores the themes such as discrimination, oppression, objectification, art, history and stereotyping. Beveridges view was mostly in accord with those of the bulk of the organized womens movement in Britain in between the years the 1930s and 1940s. For example, the socialist feminist, failed to take into contemplation that the national insurance system approved by Britain also discriminate against several other pools in society, that the Beveridge Report was basically defective because it failed to concentrate on class inequalities. Feminist theories from the 1970s have made a considerable and lasting contribution to the British welfare state. Since, this was a non-insured advantage, paid for out of common taxation, it unavoidably destined that many unconfirmed women were questioned to humiliating means-tests which were awkwardly evocative of the old Poor Law. The turning point was observed from the 1980s and little development had been made. Around sixty percent of all adults sketching means-tested reimbursement were female. With the advent of 1980s slight progress was made. Almost sixty per cent of all adults who took means-tested remunerations were female. Furthermore, in the post-war years, the rising number of single parent mothers who received revenue support became uncovered to the charge of being welfare mothers and of being the producers of an under class. With the advent of the 19th century, which was the age of the reformist many changes took place such as new law was passed which made divorce a civil affair of the court, protection for both the upper and lower classes, more career options were introduced along with the removal of the challenges, etc. (Henry 2013). Criticism The feminists have stressed on the social control and also the authoritarian nature of the welfare state policies. There were two notions one represented that gender played an important role in shaping the welfare state, while the other represented female as a supreme power in the development of the welfare state. These two notions gave birth to the differences rather than equality among the feminist society. Impact of health In the year 1913 the Registrar-Generals Social Classes were introduced and it was renamed in the year 1990 as Social Class based on Occupation. The society was classified into classes class I (professionals), II (managerial and technical occupations), III (skilled non-manual), IV (partly-skilled) and V (unskilled). The classification was based on the occupational skills (Beveridge 2014). Refer to table 1 According to Haralambos, social perspectives is that a persons chances of obtaining those things defined as desirable and avoiding those things defined as undesirable in their society. According to Rugg, (2014), the class I members they had more education thus their lifestyle was much better in terms of health, housing and welfare. High numbers of doctors, engineers and nurses were seen in the class I group. In contrary due to lack of education, their health and standard of living were low. The amenities of the housing also differed in terms of class I and V. Regarding food the class V people due to lack of money survived on the low nutrition food or consumed cheaper amount of food, whereas the Class I community feed on high nutrition and costly foods. This resulted in health deterioration in class V. The Class I community were financially stable thus could adopt for health regime, whereas, the class V community could not adopt such policies due to lack of money. Social circumstances lead to the exposure of drinking and cheap tobacco consumption in the class V community. To the contrary, class I members used high quality drinks or tobacco. The Standard death rate (SDR) is a standard measurement of the rate of death of a population against standard age distribution. According to SDR there exist a statistical difference in the mortality between class I and V based on lung cancer marked between1986-92. In terms of lung cancer, stroke and coronary heart disease it has been observed that the mortality rate decreased steadily among class I population. While for class V members the mortality rate decreased but the amount was quite less. On the contrary, the data collected from 1970 to 1993 revealed that the accident level and suicidal case was much more in class V members that class I which accounted to 22 between the years 1991 to 1993. This was a rise from the statistics of 1970 to 1972 which was 15 (Englander 2013). Analysis of theories and health inequalities The Skadon Mavron Report is also known as the Black Report was a document published in the year 1980. The document demonstrated that there has been an improvement in the health observed with the introduction of the welfare state. The Artefact explanation states that the inequalities are the outcome of inappropriate statistics and meaning of the social class. Social class is the notion that relates to the stratification of the society depending on financial and social status. The main significance of social class is that such classification affects the rewards and opportunities of an individual. The social classes can be measured based on the education, health, disability and race. According to the Artefact explanation, the main reason of health inequality was found to be economic inequality. Based on the report of table 2, it can be concluded that suicide, injuries and health problems were more prevalent among the members of class V than I due to financial crisis and inequality in me dical facility. The report reflected that the death rate of the social class V men were twice that of the social class I men (Englander 2013). The natural/social selection states that the life status of the people is the reason behind their bad health condition. The status of the lower level people is preventing them from maintaining and obtaining higher-ranking jobs. In Black report, it is observed that the death rate is more in social class V as compared to social class I in relation to Coronary Heart Disease and Lung Cancer. According to this explanation, the differences in death rates between these two classes are due to their life styles, professional life and life style (Henry 2013). In the social class V, the life status is very low as compared to the class I. The Behavioral/Cultural Explanation states that people in the lower class do not look after themselves due to their cultural and behavioral attributes. This reason leads to poor health conditions. In Black report, it is observed that the death rate is more in social class V as compared to social class I in relation to Coronary Heart Disease and Lung Cancer. The reasons behind their differences are their behavioral characteristics. For example, the people of social class V are not having regular medical checkups, are not following healthy lifestyles and healthy diets (Englander 2013). Due to these reasons, they get affected easily through lung cancer and coronary heart diseases. Their negligence leads them to the deaths. This is not observed in social class I. The Material Deprivation Explanation states that certain materialistic and structural factors are responsible for giving rise to poor health conditions in lower class level. In Black report, it is observed that the death rate is more in social class V as compared to social class I in relation to Coronary Heart Disease and Lung Cancer. According to the explanation, the reasons behind this differentiation are depression, stress, dangerous working environments, inadequate housing, subsequent poor diet, and restricted access to good quality health care, low childcare practices and low diet (Ramsay et al. 2014). Due to these reasons, they get affected easily through lung cancer and coronary heart diseases. Their negligence leads them to excess drinking and smoking. According to the author, the behavioral and cultural explanation can explain the inequalities in better way. As this explanation states that, the differentiation is observed because of their behavioral characteristics. In between the years 1970 to 1972, Decennial Supplement of Occupational Mortality (OCPS) reported that men belonging to the social class V, who are unskilled were twice more prone to die before the age of sixty-five as those in professional social class I. The young ones in the families of the social class V were twice more prone to coronary disease and lung cancer than those in social class I. The reason behind this is that the worker class possessed less economy for treatment (Digby, A., 1982). Refer to table 3 There exist social class disparities in health detrimental or health development behaviors like the dietary choices, tobacco and alcohol, active free time pursuits, and employ of contraception, antenatal services, and immunization.Furthermore, assessments of interventions that seek to change health behaviors have rarely found clear-cut improvements in health that would be predicted by the behavioral model. The low economic condition, stress, knowledge lead them to being addicted of certain drugs. That led to the deterioration of the health condition in class V that class I. For example, tobacco consumption caused lung cancer, and low diet and stress lead to coronary diseases (Scott-Samuel et al. 2014). As stated by Di Cesare et al. (2013), poverty renders individuals to health risks. Disadvantaged individuals of class V were more probable to reside in sectors in which they are uncovered to harm like the moist shelter and air pollution. The Black Report established materialist elucidations to be significant in amplification of social class dissimilarities in health among communities. There was little precise proof for materialist explanations. For example air pollution was the causative agent for the development of lung cancer (Ramsay et al. 2014). Conclusion - On considering Britain, the base of the welfare state originated with the Liberal Party under the rule of the government headed by Prime ministers David Lloyd George and H. H. Asquith. The impact of the Poor Law passed on 1601 reflects the pros and cons of the welfare state. In the year 1913 the Registrar-Generals Social Classes were introduced and it was renamed in the year 1990 as Social Class based on Occupation. With the reforms based on the Marxist and Feminist theory in Britain in the 1800s and 1900s respectively experienced changes in the social welfare structure of Britain. The research conducted by Charles Booth and Seebohm Rowntrees d in London (1886-1903) and York (1899-1901) respectively helped to recognize the economic status of the country. The introduction of the Registrar-Generals Social Classes in 1913 divided the society into five classes depending on the community occupation. The Black Report was a document published in the year 1980 which demonstrated that there has been an improvement in the health observed with the introduction of the welfare state. Thus it can be concluded that the theme of most welfare histories is 'the coming of the welfare state' as though all previous forms of welfare were temporary and incomplete, that it was inevitable Britain's welfare should be ultimately dominated by state provision, and that, somehow, the journey is now at an end. Bibliography: Beveridge, W.H., 2014.Full Employment in a Free Society (Works of William H. Beveridge): A Report(Vol. 6). Routledge. Bossert, W., Chakravarty, S.R. and D'Ambrosio, C., 2013. Multidimensional poverty and material deprivation with discrete data.Review of Income and Wealth,59(1), pp.29-43. Carter-Harris, L., Weaver, M.T., Schreiber, J.A., Rawl, S.M. and Hermann, C.P., 2014. Lung cancer stigma predicts timing of medical help-seeking in individuals with lung cancer. Di Cesare, M., Khang, Y.H., Asaria, P., Blakely, T., Cowan, M.J., Farzadfar, F., Guerrero, R., Ikeda, N., Kyobutungi, C., Msyamboza, K.P. and Oum, S., 2013. Inequalities in non-communicable diseases and effective responses.The Lancet,381(9866), pp.585-597. Digby, A., 1982.The Poor Law in Nineteenth Century England and Wales(Vol. 104). Historical association. Englander, D., 2013.Poverty and Poor Law Reform in Nineteenth-Century Britain, 1834-1914: From Chadwick to Booth. Routledge. Hay, J.R., 2016.Origins of the Liberal Welfare Reforms, 1906-14. Springer. Hay, J.R., 2016.Origins of the Liberal Welfare Reforms, 1906-14. Springer. Henry, R., 2013. Point of view-Advocacy can bring parity to survival rates.Cancer Nursing Practice (through 2013),12(10), p.10. Hesse-Biber, S.N., 2012.Handbook of feminist research: Theory and praxis. Sage. Jackson, P. and Neely, A.H., 2015. Triangulating health Toward a practice of a political ecology of health.Progress in Human Geography,39(1), pp.47-64. Le Roux, B., Friedman, S., Miles, A., Savage, M., Devine, F., Cunningham, N., Taylor, M., Li, Y. and Hjellbrekke, J., 2012 A New Model of Social Class: Findings from the BBC's Great British Class. Lebel, S., Feldstain, A., McCallum, M., Beattie, S., Irish, J., Bezjak, A. and Devins, G.M., 2013. Do behavioural self-blame and stigma predict positive health changes in survivors of lung or head and neck cancers?.Psychology health,28(9), pp.1066-1081. Mackenbach, J.P., 2012. The persistence of health inequalities in modern welfare states: the explanation of a paradox.Social science medicine,75(4), pp.761-769. Mills, C., 2014. The great British class fiasco: A comment on Savage et al.Sociology, p.0038038513519880. Munson, C. and Saulnier, C.F., 2014.Feminist theories and social work: Approaches and applications. Routledge. Ramsay, S.E., Morris, R.W., Whincup, P.H., Papacosta, A.O., Lennon, L.T. and Wannamethee, S.G., 2014. Time trends in socioeconomic inequalities in cancer mortality: results from a 35 year prospective study in British men.BMC cancer,14(1), p.1. Rugg, J., 2014. Poverty and social exclusion.Twentieth-century Britain: economic, cultural and social change, pp.308-322. Savage, M., Devine, F., Cunningham, N., Friedman, S., Laurison, D., Miles, A., Snee, H. and Taylor, M., 2014. On social class, anno 2014.Sociology, p.0038038514536635. Savage, M., Devine, F., Cunningham, N., Taylor, M., Li, Y., Hjellbrekke, J., Le Roux, B., Friedman, S. and Miles, A., 2013. A new model of social class? Findings from the BBCs Great British Class Survey experiment.Sociology,47(2), pp.219-250. Scambler, G., 2015. Critical realism, sociology and health inequalities: social class as a generative mechanism and its media of enactment.Alethia. Scott-Samuel, A., Bambra, C., Collins, C., Hunter, D.J., McCartney, G. and Smith, K., 2014. The impact of Thatcherism on health and well-being in Britain.International Journal of Health Services,44(1), pp.53-71. Shilling, C., 2012.The body and social theory. Sage. Whelan, C.T. and Matre, B., 2012. Understanding material deprivation: A comparative European analysis.Research in Social Stratification and Mobility,30(4), pp.489-503.

Knowledge Should Be a Free and Not a Commodity in a Contemporary

Question: 1.Critically Discuss This Assertion And Explain Its Consequence For The Knowledge Production And Distribution? 2.What Are The Key Market Failures Surrounding Investment In Innovation? Answer: 1. Knowledge should be a free and not a commodity. In a contemporary society, knowledge is considered to be a long-termed process that enables a person to perform tasks. Knowledge is considered to be a basic prerequisite and something that is intrinsic in nature. It is an intensified recognition and considered as a corporate asset that provides greatest competitive advantage. According to Altbach (2015) knowledge is considered to be of economic advantage and meaningful resource that establishes and treats the knowledge management. From the content perspective, knowledge is viewed as codified and stored repositories that allow knowledge to be retained and shared. Arguably, knowledge should be considered to be a free-floating entity that is understood as provisional, relational and primarily text-bounded. From this perspective, knowledge is considered to be process of knowing and the ability of an individual to act (Filieri and Alguezaui 2014). From the content perspective of epistemological standpoint, knowledge is treated as a commodity that can be easily exchanged between people and managed independently by the knower. However, knowledge should be treated away from commodity and as an independent free asset. It is unquestionable and human related that works towards the benefit of people that acts knowledgeable. Arguably, from the relational perspective, it seems to deny knowledge as a substantiate commodity whatsoever. In the view of relational writers, knowledge is limited to social relations that give a narrow view of knowledge (Jacob 2014). The technocentric content view treats the knowledge as commodity that is easily transported and can be exchanged between organizations. In addition, anthropocentric view treats knowledge as a pure subtle, tacit and based on experience. It also views knowledge as a manipulation of the social relations. It is frequently used with information and viewed as textual content (Antonelli and David 2015). Knowledge should not be considered as commodity and it is inexpensive, free and easy to achieve. In todays world, knowledge is viewed as a raw material that is economic and easily accessible. However, knowledge is awareness, familiarity or understanding of something or someone. It is a collection of facts, descriptions, information or skills that are acquired through education or experience via discovering, learning or perceiving. It is not a commodity and a theoretical understanding of a subject. It is the interpretation of data that is free and intrinsic in nature. In contrast, in todays world, knowledge acts as a fuel that runs the organizational economy and gain benefits (Hausmann 2013). In todays world, the scenario of knowledge production and distribution is changing. New technologies and agents are diversifying the traditional methods of knowledge production and distribution. Knowledge is a fictitious commodity that substantiates economy and called knowledge-based commodity. The distribution of knowledge is via formal and informal ways that are the essential components for economic performance. It is increasingly codified and transmitted through the information technology, communication networks and computers called the information society. There is requirement of skills and adaption to codified knowledge that is required in tacit knowledge that is the underlying reason for the continuous learning. In the era of knowledge-driven economy, innovation is driven via the interactions between the users and producers where they exchange codified and tacit knowledge (Machlup 2014). Information technology is related to knowledge, media and computer networking. The intensit y of knowledge or information is related to the efficient production of knowledge. Media technology increases the production and distribution of knowledge that becomes accessible through data based networking that interplays between users and producers. The distribution of knowledge in a economy based approach is the possession of knowledge and applying it to solve a problem. It is an aggravated collective distribution of knowledge where the knowledgeable people unite in a community to solve a problem with the help of information technologies and media (Machlup 2014). 2. Innovation is a process where new ideas that hold social and economic value It acts as a instrument that aids in delivering the productivity and economic benefits that are associated with investments and development of key innovative tools. It is a way to tackle the major social challenges and improve the quality of life (Tirole 2015). Investment in innovative technologies is a risky process. It has uncertain outcomes and requires a large amount of funding. Therefore, in the process of investing in innovation, there are key market failures that affect the mechanism process. The failures include knowledge or technological spillovers, appropriability and public goods, network or coordination failures and imperfect asymmetric information (Bleda and Del Rio 2013). Knowledge or technological spillovers is the process of end result while undertaking innovation. For example, the product is the end result of an innovation that is capable to generate positive externalities. However, from a private market perspective, innovative projects are unprofitable and might be capable of drawing large social benefits, so it is considered to be a market failure and withdrawn (Barbaroux 2014). Appropriability and public goods are another market failure. For example, the ideas and knowledge are non-excludable and people cannot be excluded to avail the benefits that are generated from innovation. It is not possible for the people to pay individually for the availed benefit from innovation and as a result, the private firms give up the innovative projects (Mazzucato 2016). Network failures or lack of coordination is another failure, however, the private firms does not invest in innovation alone. This leads to problems that have an adverse effect on the coordination of the companies while interaction or during the delivery of innovation. For example, in research and development, there are number of problems that arise due to difficulties in coordination between the companies. There is also problems that give rise to inadequate access by the smaller companies to the innovation system (Fagerberg, Martin and Andersen 2013). Asymmetric or imperfect information is a major failure that affects the financial markets investing in innovation. Funding is the major issue that is required in large amounts to invest in innovation as it is risky with unpredictable outcomes. For example, the small and medium enterprises (SMEs) who are engaged in high-tech innovative projects may find it difficult to get funding for the proposed information. Innovative projects are greatly harmed by market failures and there is requirement of innovative policies or schemes that make innovation sub-optimal and interventions that are formed in a way that has a possibility to increase the innovation level. An innovation policy is required to be developed by the economists in the light and encouragement in the path of innovation. The Innovation Policy that is developed by the World Bank Group and Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) provides a platform that provides easy access to the learning sources, knowledge, practice of design with implementation and evaluation of the policy. It helps the udders to learn the operation of innovation systems with good practices, statistical benchmarking and application of solutions to policy problems. It helps in the facilitation of knowledge, its exchange and collaboration between the regions and countries. Innovation policy in Australia is developed from the national innovation system (NIS) perspective that addresses the notions in market failure that focuses on public sector commercialization and in the international emulation (Lember, Kattel and Kalvet 2014). This policy adopts the NIS framework by the national government s and policy organizations at the international level. Innovation policy is a form of public action that encompasses the research and development policy, infrastructure policy, technology policy, educational and regional policy that focuses on every aspect of innovation apart from science and technology. It helps to address the market failures in key innovation that makes the efficient use of knowledge. The objectives of this policy are to address the productivity and economic growth, competitiveness and increased employment. Innovation policy intervention helps to balance the activities of markets and governments in the path of innovation. Moreover, in Australia, the free market trajectory addressed in policy-making is being complemented, extended and focused to complex-evolutionary system thinking and coordination (McCann and Ortega-Argils 2013). This innovation policy addresses the market failure and the policy makers are focused on the incorporation and continuation of the science and research instead of demand driven approaches. References Altbach, P., 2015. Knowledge and education as international commodities.International higher education, (28). Antonelli, C. and David, P., 2015.The Economics of Knowledge and the Knowledge Driven Economy. Routledge. Barbaroux, P., 2014. From market failures to market opportunities: managing innovation under asymmetric information.Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship,3(1), p.5. Bleda, M. and Del Rio, P., 2013. The market failure and the systemic failure rationales in technological innovation systems.Research policy,42(5), pp.1039-1052. Fagerberg, J., Martin, B.R. and Andersen, E.S. eds., 2013.Innovation studies: evolution and future challenges. OUP Oxford. Filieri, R. and Alguezaui, S., 2014. Structural social capital and innovation. Is knowledge transfer the missing link?.Journal of Knowledge Management,18(4), pp.728-757. Hausmann, R., 2013. The Tacit Knowledge Economy.Project Syndicate. Available at: https://www. project-syndicate. org/commentary/ricardo-hausmann-on-the-mental-sourcesof-productivity-growth (accessed 30 October 2013). Jacob, M.C., 2014. The first knowledge economy.Cambridge Books. Lember, V., Kattel, R. and Kalvet, T., 2014. Public procurement, innovation and policy.International Perspectives. Machlup, F., 2014.Knowledge: its creation, distribution and economic significance, Volume I: Knowledge and knowledge production(Vol. 1). Princeton University Press. Machlup, F., 2014.Knowledge: Its Creation, Distribution and Economic Significance, Volume III. Princeton University Press. Mazzucato, M., 2016. From market fixing to market-creating: a new framework for innovation policy.Industry and Innovation,23(2), pp.140-156. McCann, P. and Ortega-Argils, R., 2013. Modern regional innovation policy.Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society,6(2), pp.187-216. Tirole, J., 2015. Market failures and public policy.American Economic Review,105(6), pp.1665-82.